SECTION 1

SECTION 2

SECTION 3

SECTION  4

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MANUAL FOR USE OF STILL

PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE CLASSROOM

by

 Prof. Carl Edwin Lindgren, D.Ed.  

Fellow of the Indian International Photographic Council and  Fellow of the College of Preceptors (Essex , England )

I extend my thanks to Dr. Burl Hunt who has for the last 20 years, been a friend, colleague and mentor. It was through his suggestion that this work was conceived. I also would like to thank Dr. Kenneth Bender and Dr. Peggy Emerson who have encouraged and assisted me in this undertaking. Dr. Bender has always taken time from his busy schedule to listen to my ideas, hopes and dreams. His interest and concern regarding the arts, and photography's place in education were instrumental in my selection of this topic. I am deeply indebted to the authors and publishers whose name I have cited in my notes. I would also like to thank certain members (i.e., Cecil W. Adkins, Claudia P. Morgan, Richard G. Wells and William A. Price) of the Photographic Society of America who have provided suggestions in writing the photographic manual.

---

                                                                                                      INTRODUCTION

America's youth are failing to meet the performance levels on standardized tests that were the norms in previous years. With emphasis on a new world order, international competition, and the higher math and science scores of students from other countries, many educators, scholars, and social scientists believe if we are to maintain our position as a first class country, we must equip our youth with academic skills that will allow them to compete in the "open market." (Aldrich 1990, p. 15). In this process of focusing on academic areas, especially math and science, we must not abandon our commitment to the fine arts.

According to Webster's Dictionary (1840, pp. 71 &72)  "The liberal or polite arts are those in which the mind or imagination is chiefly concerned, as poetry, music, and painting." It is these "fine arts" which elevate man from his daily routine and stimulate his mind and emotions.  Unlike the sciences or "useful arts" the "fine arts" are an end unto themselves -- an enjoyment and pleasure. Art is made for its own sake, to bring joy and beauty to the beholder.  Included within the fine arts are the disciplines of architecture, sculpture, painting, music, etc. Also  included within this broad definition is photography.

 Photography as an Art Form

 For more than 150 years, photography has played an important role in world history. From recording man's triumphs and defeats, from his first breath till his last, photography has been there. 

Although many artists reject the idea that photography is an art, this ability to freeze time and capture a split second of eternity is the purest form of artistic expression. What other form of art can communicate the  essence of man's pain and happiness? Does da Vinci's Mona Lisa or Michelangelo's David reveal any more of man's inner self than Ben Shahn's Rehabilitation Client, Boone County , Arkansas or W. Eugene Smith's The Thread Maker? Although the former artists spent considerable time in creating their masterpieces, time does not define the difference between art and non-art. True art is the activity of creating beautiful things. As the late Sir John Millais stated (Maskell 1896, p. 597):

 There is no comparison in art. You cannot compare  works of art any more than you can compare flowers.  You may prefer a rose to a lily, but you do not say  one is better than another; . . . 

 Today, however, with emphasis on math and science, budget cuts, and curriculum changes, photography within our schools may soon be an art form of the past. Therefore, it is important that this study presents to the potential photographic instructor, the historical mystery and romance surrounding the creation of a photographic print. This excitement should, in turn, be made available to students.  Few high schools include photography in their curriculum (e.g., art, journalism, etc.).

If these courses are dropped, only students who work on the year book or school paper will receive training in photography and darkroom techniques.  This trend, however, is reversing as the art of photography is integrated with the science of computer imagery.

According to Dr. Robert J. Ulbert, APSA, (1993), electronic imaging is the new way of writing with light (photography). The art of photography is learning to adapt to technology's advancement. This is evident in the Photographic Federation of Long Island (PFLI), allowing computer manipulated images to be entered "into competition provided that the original image was exposed to film, regardless of the number of . . . computer interventions performed . . ." (Ulberg, 1993, p. 5). The world of photography is changing, and photographers are meeting challenges by redefining and broadening their idea of art photography. The new multi‑media format combines computers, scanners, cameras, printers, and digital image processing to re-energize an art form created over one hundred and fifty years ago. Computer integration is no more intimidating than the prior introductions of paper negatives and solarization. According to Theron Holden, FPSA (1992), ". . . all of these [techniques] require skill and more importantly, artistic sense" (p. 5).

Statement of the Problem

      The purpose of this study is to provide teachers with an aid that will help them in preparing students in the art and technique of photography. The study is based on a review of literature and suggestions provided by former students of a school of education graduate level photography course and their applicability in the public or private school classroom. With this purpose in mind, the specific objective of the study is to prepare a teacher's manual containing objectives, new vocabulary, activities, informational text, references and practical applications.

Limitations of the Problem

     It was decided to use a mail out questionnaire as the research method in this study. The questionnaire elicited the opinions and suggestions of former students of a graduate level photography course regarding a manual on teaching photography in the public and private school system. The questions were both subjective and objective in design.  

Significance of the Study

     Photography is undergoing changes resulting from rapid advances in computer, video camera, and compact disk technology. Although photography can be manipulated, photographs still serve to present a point in time for historical, sociological and philosophical reference. This manipulation results in an audio-visual presentation incorporating, art, technology (computers), chemistry, and physics. 

By using photography and enhanced photographic techniques, teachers can provide students in various disciplines (e.g., science, math, history, etc.) with additional tools for increasing participation, encouraging activity, and promoting curiosity. It is hoped this study rekindles an interest in photography among educators and teachers. It is also desired that educators will be better equipped to integrate photography into existing curricula, as an independent study course in their school environment.  

Design and Procedure of the Study  

A questionnaire was used as the data gathering instrument (Appendix A). This question­naire consisted of a series of twenty‑three questions ranked on a 1-5 scale (one being "little value," two "of some value," three "of value," four "greater value," and five being "greatest value") and a request for additional suggestions.

Input in developing the questionnaire was obtained from classroom teachers, curriculum specialists, students, photography textbooks, and amateur photographers.

            Approximately one hundred former students were provided a questionnaire regarding what they had learned in EDAV 575 (taught by Dr. Burl Hunt, Professor Emeritus). The participants were questioned about what information they would like to see included in a general teacher's manual for integrating photography into an already existing class environment or a separate exploratory/introductory photo program. The questionnaire consists of items relating to history and philosophy, uses of photography, using the camera, developing and processing, framing the print, and  the use of digital and 16mm photography. The survey group in this study, includes current teachers, principals, and other administrative faculty.

Once the data was collected, compiled, collated and analyzed, general objectives were designed. With the creation of objectives, corresponding activities were formulated. The manual is designed to expose teachers and students to a variety of artistic, social, and technical experiences. The manual is divided into sections providing appropriate material for an eighteen-week term. The information is also arranged so teachers instructing shorter classes can select materials to incorporate into their program.  

Population

Names of former students, from EDAV 575, "Photography for the Educator," over the past five years (1988-92), were provided by the School of Education . Addresses were obtained through past University and regional phone directories and Alumni records. The mailing date was between May 15th and June 15th 1993.  

Definitions   

Certain definitions of terms in respect to specific connotations were necessary in this study. They are:

1.   Desktop Publishing -  a form of computer technology, used in publishing, which integrates multi-media design.

2.   Digital Image Processing ". . . enables photographers to shoot, scan, and transmit from remote locations [with] . . . levels of quality and speed . . . local photos can be scanned . . . eliminating darkroom processes" (Leaf Systems, 1992).

3.   Professional Digital Camera System (DCS) - Based on the Nikon F3 camera, this system incorporates a Nikon camera body with a digital imaging Kodak back that can photograph high resolution monochrome or color images with a resolution of 1.3 million pixels (1024 x 1280). The image can be entered and stored into a computer system for future manipulation and display. (Leonard & Leonard, 1993, p. 19).                                                                         

Organization of the Research

 The remainder of the study is organized in two volumes. Volume I consists of the following:

Section  II contains a literature search of the information available to complete the study. Section III concerns the procedure for setting up the survey and the distribution of a questionnaire to approximately 100 former graduate students of EDAV 575 ("Photography for the Educator"). Information is also provided regarding a re-issuing of the questionnaire due to poor initial response.

Section IV presents the research method involved in the collecting, collating, and analyzing of data.

Section V presents the findings, conclusion, and recommendations of the study.

Volume II (on Disk II) contains the teacher's manual, based on review of literature recommendations and findings of this survey.

 SECTION II

 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

 The purpose of this chapter is to present a review of relevant literature. Emphasis is on (1) presenting photography as an art and technical form, and (2) locating source material for writing a photography manual for teachers. Included are: "stand alone" programs, ones integrating photography into existing courses, and ones using photography for enhancing student interest and skills. Few photographic  books are tailored for use in educational settings. The majority, focus on photographic specialties such as glamour, modeling, wedding, portrait and landscape photography or concern photographers, camera design, or photo history. Most references provided by ERIC, thesis and dissertation abstracts, and on-line journal and magazine citations are also limited in classroom applicability.

The literature surveyed is presented in two sections. They are: teaching photography as an art and technical form and, more extensively, teaching photography in the classroom.  

Photography as an Art and Technical Form       

Officially settled, in a late 1800s lawsuit (involving Gisele Freund), was the question of whether photography was art or a manufactured product. An illegally reproduced photograph had been made with the intent of selling the print as an original (Kahmen, 1974). After several court rulings and appeals, the suit established photography as an art, placing the products of the camera under the same protection as traditional art. Freund (1968) also provides information regarding this landmark decision in his book Photographie und burgerliche Gesellschaft.       

The teaching of visual expression (art), like any subject generating the "inner-self," is of considerable worth. The Mississippi Department of Education (Appendix B) says the following in their curriculum guide (Department,  1991 part A1). 

Art is a means through which children discover their world and that which is in it. They explore and experiment. They envision their ideas. They see clearly and feel deeply. They evolve as creative individuals by reacting with imagination and aesthetic understanding. 

 

The content of art is human experience; and through art processes, that experience is given clarity and meaning. Art is that response to life through which we actively explore and experiment with line, space, form, value, color, and texture in order to express our interests, ideals, and reactions to our environment in a personal way.  

De Francesco (1958) states high school art courses help students in developing standards of taste and appreciation of art forms, while also enhancing social skills. As an art elective, photography provides many benefits De Francesco attributes to art courses. It, too, can further the development of students' enjoyment and effectiveness,  enabling them to "create a society where such living is possible for all" (Progressive  Education 1940, p. 17).

There are two basic techniques of teaching art (Munro, 1956). The first group favors a conservative, academic approach. Discipline, systematic study, required knowledge, and comprehension are stressed. The second, liberal or progressive photographers, stress integration rather than single subject curriculum, a broad psychological and sociological approach, freedom of expression and a more abstract interpretation of photography. High school and college photography teachers should strive, as did Munro's art teachers, for balance. Regardless how photography is taught, it must be understood. According to Stieglitz (1899), there are three types of photographers:  

. . . the ignorant, the purely technical, and the artistic. To the pursuit, the first brings nothing   but what is not desirable; the second, a purely technical education obtained after years of study;   and the third bring the feeling and inspiration of   the artist, to which is added afterward the purely technical knowledge. This class devote the best part of their lives to the work, and it is only after an intimate acquaintance with them and their productions that the casual observer comes to realize the fact that the ability to make a truly artistic photograph is not acquired off‑hand, but is the result of an artistic instinct coupled with years of labor (p. 528).  

Previous research shows the interrelationship between technical and aesthetic ideas in photographs - ideas that can be expressed and evaluated (McIsaac, 1980). Photography courses should, therefore, emphasize both technical (i.e., composition, developing, printing, etc.) and creative skills.

Utech's (1968) investigation of photography's effectiveness for developing art appreciation arrives at several conclusions: (1) In both a creative and practical approach to art appreciation, photography is as effective as the disciplines of sculpture, drawing, painting, and graphics. (2) "A significant relationship was found among students' increase in aesthetic preferences and the abstract styles of art." (3) "A significant parallel relationship exists between students' ranked references for photographs or art works and their instruction in photography or art" (p. 3350‑A). Utech stresses the importance of including photography as an art appreciation course.

In a later paper, McIsaac (1981) also emphasizes the importance of photography for enhancing aesthetic skills. According to McIsaac (1981), photography can transmit visual ideas. McIsaac examined aesthetic and technical variables in students' photographs. His findings showed that students always do better when instructors included aesthetic ideas with photographic teaching. Davidson (1992) says that although a dichotomous medium, possessing both aesthetic and technical elements, photography remains an art, being taught in art and art education classes. Any course or manual should, therefore, include integration of technical aspects, (i.e., developing, composition, printing, etc.) with artistic representation - a representation including aesthetic valuing, aesthetic conception, creative expression, and art's heritage (Davidson, 1992).  

Teaching of Photography in the Classroom 

A preliminary search of literature, shows photographic interest is more prevalent than first assumed and that interest on the public school level can be broken down as follows: (1) self-contained courses, (2) a unit within an established course, and (3) club activities (Gennaula, 1967).

Smith‑Malek (1979) presents research regarding teaching of basic photography to seventh and eighth grade students.  His outline includes not only black and white photography but also elements of design needed for creating good prints. The systematic guide presents, in unit form, techniques, vocabulary, new skills, and previously learned tasks. 

In a broader based research program, Rice (1958) presents a survey of methods and materials used in teaching photography on the secondary grade level. The project consists of data received from 100 teachers (nationwide) and fifty teacher and education instructors. The research method was a questionnaire focusing on how photography should be taught, training of the teacher, and what facilities should be used. According to the study: (1) teachers should have training in basic photographic technique, (2) photography should be viewed as an important part of a secondary school curriculum, and (3) the program or course should be interesting and fun. Complicating teaching of photography were inadequate space, insufficient equipment, and poor textbooks (Rice, 1958). Limited budget and time can also influence designing and setting up a photography course.

Speight (1981) contributes a series of activities, including making 35 mm slides, shadowgrams, print making, and creating enlargements that introduce students to photography. Supply costs are small, as is investment of time. Each activity builds upon prior ones.

Carroll (1986) provides information for making quality photography a reality at the elementary level. Instructions for building a portable darkroom, using pinhole cameras, and the "art of looking" are included. The approach is one based on making central to the act of photographing - choices about what and how something is framed; about light, depth of field, sense of movement; about subject matter based on the world one sees and knows" (p. 34).

      Mayer's (1976) research on still photography in Texas supported colleges presents information about ways in which colleges teach photography -- their teaching style, curriculum, and photographic perspective. This project was beneficial in helping students decide each school's goals, purpose and method. Regarding technical aspects of photographic instruction or designing a manual, one must determine teacher experience and performance, facilities and environment available, course objectives, content and activities.

Saba 's (1976) research shows that of those teaching high school photography courses in California, 50% possessed bachelors and 50% masters. These findings are similar to a study by Ward (1981) in Massachusetts, showing most instructors possessing masters, being members of an art department, and having their degrees in a related field.  

Another study, based on the California college system ( Lawrence, 1972), presents major guidelines for teaching a college level photography course. These include: skills and practical use of camera, creative expression, and darkroom experience. Emphasis, according to Lawrence, should be on aesthetics, composition, and darkroom experience. Less important were: lens selection and use, camera type and use, candid photography, backgrounds and foregrounds, and filters   (Lawrence, 1972). Bernstein (1979) also states that teachers should place greater emphasis on the artistic aspect of photography than on mechanics.

Gibb (1984) provides a useful teacher's manual in which he combines what he learned from other manuals into creating one that is useful and simplified. Teachers had little trouble using the guide or learning darkroom techniques. The students also showed little or no difficulty in assimilating the varied techniques. After learning these techniques, both students and teachers were more likely to integrate photography into their studies or curriculum.

Photography without a Camera or Darkroom

Photograms, composition, and processing are just a few of the ways that photography was introduced into P.S. 75, on Manhattan 's upper west side. "Photography with a camera or without a camera" is an excellent way for students to express themselves, learn about themselves, and have fun (Eisenman, 1979, p. 91). Sungrams (a type of photogram) also prove an exciting tool for teaching photography. An opaque object is placed over light sensitive paper and then exposed in sun light. The opaque object is then removed, the paper developed and fixed in a chemical solution (Allen, 1979).

Another way to teach photography without a camera or darkroom is by showing the relationship between negative and positive in photography. In this activity, students, on a piece of 5"x 7" clear plastic, paint or draw a design. A piece of light sensitive paper is placed underneath (in total darkness) and then exposed to light. When developed, the drawing or painted area is white and the uncovered area black (Laderman, 1985).

Lynch-Pollart (1992), presents inexpensive ways for teachers to bring photography to the classroom, including creating prints without using a camera. Creating and displaying 'photograms' costs less than $1.50 per student and can be demonstrated to several students simultaneously.

An earlier project by McDole (1983) also provides an alternative for the expensive establishment of a darkroom.  In this curriculum, three methods are used: (1) outside processing, (2) user‑processed emulsions (slide or transparency), and (3) instant print film (e.g., Polaroid).  According to McDole, emphasis is on composition and the art of picture taking instead of the mechanics involved in their development. The paper also presents the advantages and disadvantages of this process. Concerning non‑darkroom techniques, Cope (1981) provides insight into the many uses for instant photography in both elementary and high school environments.

      When a darkroom is required, Dailey (1992) suggests constructing a box with enough space to hold an enlarger and developing trays. Access to the darkroom box is through an opening in the side through which a pair of black sleeves is attached. Other openings are covered with red plastic, allowing viewing of the developing process.  

Darkroom and Technical Projects

      When using a darkroom, a wider range of activities is available to the student. Besides standard development and printing, students are introduced to techniques such as easel manipulation, image blending, Vaseline smear images, vignette, negative flopping, and a combination of techniques (Smith, 1979). Even with a darkroom facility, the technical aspects of sun prints, can cameras, pinhole cameras, composition, and camera use are beneficial (Price, 1981).  

Photography in the Science Class

Russell's (1991) article concerns the use of photography in science classes as a tool for plant identification (i.e., ferns). These study methods include not only information about fern propagation, fern hybrids and fern collection but also reference to fern photography.  Other outdoor educational enrichment programs can be similarly enhanced by incorporating photography. The Outdoor Educational Manual, developed by the Colorado City Independent School District (1971), consists of ideas and suggestions made by classroom teachers. Included are outdoor activities such as canoe trips, forestry, and winter activities. Brovey (1980) also presents a short overview of ways in which photography is integrated into science classes.  

Photography in Language, Literature, and Writing 

Moore (1992) integrates photography into the creation of stories. Moore provides the information needed to create pictures that provide an on-going story line. This provided not only photographic instruction but also assistance in literature and writing skills. 

Stratton & Grindler (1991) provide tips for enhancing reading and writing instruction using photography. In their paper, they use the Apple/Polaroid Language Experience Approach that combines instant photography with computer (word processing) skills. Elementary students take a series of photographs and arrange them into a booklet. In this exercise, all learning styles are included, thereby providing all students with a worthwhile activity.

      Photography can also help pupils in language skills (Speidel and Carlson, 1979). They assert that photography involves similar creative skills such as organizing impressions, articulating feelings, and evaluating creative works.

Photography is also a useful tool in writing classes. Vahl (1990) describes a cooperative project in which a writing teacher teams with a photography teacher to provide students with photojournalistic skills. A similar project by Bruner (1985), incorporates writing, photography, and drama into the study and interpretation of books. A later work by Wood (1987) combines photographic techniques and local history projects in the teaching of seventh grade language arts. Emphasis was on motivation and writing skills.

Kayne and Webb (1979) describe classroom experiences, combining reading and writing with audio‑visual media (i.e., short story/slide show, dialogue/film, literature/video, and poetry/photography). According to Plattor (1982), visual literacy or picture reading (in which the students review prints) is extremely important. In this project, students observe the visual and auditory effects provided by literature. The teacher: 1) selects prose or poetry, 2) devises a storyboard, 3) selects or makes appropriate slides and 4) provides the necessary background sound tape. The integration of literature and photography is also illustrated by Cain and Comings (1977). This project, designed for low‑reading ability adults, uses a technique known as "fotonovelas." Photographs are arranged in printed media, presenting a story in picture form. Although used for adults, the process can be included in a kindergarten or elementary class. Emphasis is on the facilitator‑participant relationship.  

Photography in Sociology

Not only beneficial in literature, writing, reading, and science, photography adds a more personal dimension to environmental issues and sociology. Chalmers (1981) suggests ways in which photography, through the recording of places and buildings, can assist pupils in forming opinions regarding building environment. Cheatwood (1978) assists sociology and other social studies teachers by integrating visual images into related projects. The project provides a visual interpretation of social and cultural events.

Photography and Motivation

Photography can also be a motivational tool. Gentry (1976) provides a teacher's manual that assists in involving students in journalism. This is achieved through photographic stories, activities, and visual discrimination exercises. The motivational techniques used in this project can easily be applied to other junior or high school level courses. Babb's article (1992) also assists high school teachers in designing a photojournalism curriculum. This program provides the teacher with tips, a goal oriented curriculum guide, and sample grading system.  

Different Photographic Approaches

Nolker and Tyner's (1991) teacher's guide takes an unusual approach to photographic interpretation. Although not a photography course manual, the guide provides the student a picture (i.e., Dorothea Lang's "White Angel Breadline") and an evaluation based on ten major aspects.  These include: aesthetic elements, title, ownership (copyright), photographer, intent, historical content, emotion, genre and framing. Students are then expected to evaluate other prints using the same criteria.

Barrett (1987) classifies photographs into six types including: 1) explanatory, 2) descriptive, 3) aesthetic, 4) interpretive, 5) theoretical, and 6) ethically evaluative. This approach is well‑suited for integrating photography into history, social studies, and English classes. Barrett (1987) stresses the importance of examining the internal, original, and external context of a photographic print. The article provides teachers and students with the knowledge necessary to evaluate the internal context of prints. Insight into art and photography can also be obtained, according to Berry (1986), by providing students (ex. second graders) the opportunity of attending an art show or exhibition. This idea was also expressed by Bernstein (1979) who suggested visits (i.e., field trips) to local or regional photographic galleries or exhibitions.  

Photographic Project Guides

Another approach was provided by McMillan and Quinto (1985) who designed a teacher's guide for using the camera in the classroom. This guide was used to stimulate interest, enthusiasm, and creativity. It describes 132 projects for students from kindergarten through high school. The projects are divided into subject and grade sections.

A general art guide for teachers was also introduced by the Frederick County Public School (1981). It provides high school teachers with a "competency based approach" in the teaching of art. The guide includes: course overviews, philosophy and goals for art education, and a discussion of aesthetic expression.

Another guide was written by Ford (1983). It includes 119 projects for students K-12. The guide contains programs for social studies, art, geology, language arts, and junior and senior high school science.

Although written for a junior high industrial arts class, a guide compiled by Towler (1983) provides teachers in other disciplines information for designing new photograph courses and revising existing ones. Divided into 11 sections, the guide contains: vocabulary, suggested references, teaching aids, objectives, student activities, handouts, and proposed tests. The major sections include: an introduction, history of photography, camera design and usage, composition, darkroom techniques, careers, and computer applications.

Eastman Kodak (1979), published a manual of photographic projects consisting of more than 275 activities and suggestions. Suggestions, provided by readers of The Instructor, Teacher, and Curriculum Product Review, ranged from motivation and communication, to use of the camera, and special education. Besides Eastman Kodak (1979), Ford (1983) and McMillan and Quinto (1985), Kodak and the National Educational Association are busy producing other video and media projects for the educator.

Benedict's manual, produced by the Arizona Board of Regents, is an excellent step-by-step program for teaching photography in the lower grades. The booklet provides training in making a pinhole camera, taking pinhole pictures, using a camera, and developing one's own viewpoint.

      Nyles (1980) provides teachers a usable format for identifying photographic projects (two-sixth grade). The work also provides an in-service mini-course to aid in teacher identifica­tion of potential projects.  

Photography and Safety

Although not as fun or exciting as developing, printing, visiting exhibitions, or taking pictures, consideration also should be provided regarding safety and health. The health and safety of children are paramount in the school environment. Therefore, it is extremely important that attention be given to potential dangers in a typical darkroom. Addressing this concern, Houk and Hart (1987) provide a case study approach to darkroom safety. The authors concentrate on facilities, ventilation, proper chemical handling procedures and clean-up. Rempel (1991),  Shaw and Rossol (1991) also provide two excellent works on health hazards in photography. Chapman (1992) states that safety and health issues will be an important consideration in 21st century photographic education.  

Video and Beyond

Regarding the conversion of 16 and 35mm film into videodisc format, Kempers (1985) presents a paper emphasizing the importance of using a video recorder capable of recording single frames. Lokuta (1975) stresses presenting the history of photography in a context flexible enough to cross disciplinary lines. In teaching a history of photography, future emphasis, according to Lokuta (1975) will be on "the interdisciplinary nature of the field and the interaction of photography . . . and electronic imagery in the history of photographic curriculum" (p. 4994-A).

From digitized imagery, electronic non-film still photography (Becker, 1991), to virtual reality (Robins, 1991), and interactive multimedia (Howard, 1991), PhotoVideo, presents an in‑depth view of the "print" of tomorrow. The book provides a futuristic view of electronic photography. Larish (1990) also reveals the magical world of electronic darkrooms and publishersCa world integrating photography with slide-scanners, video cameras, thermal printers, and digital film recorders. Larish (1990) provides insight into the future, alternatives, and integration of electronic photography.

Summary 

School photography courses can assist in the development of aesthetic values, the transmission of visual ideas, and the creation of imagination and commitment. In providing this training, photography should be taught from both a technical and aesthetic viewpoint.

Photography, regardless of the grade level, is easily integrated into most course studies. This is especially true of disciplines including: English, science, social science,  history, environmental studies, and math.

SECTION  III

           RESEARCH PROCEDURE           

      This chapter is designed to describe the steps used in completing the study, individuals involved in the study, and instrument used. 

Description of the Procedures  

The following procedures were used in preparing the materials necessary to design a questionnaire to obtain data:

1.   The questionnaire was designed based on photography manuals, textbooks, and materials suggested by professional and amateur photographers. The survey, in its final form, consists of 23 questions divided into six sections (Appendix A).

2.   Recipients of the survey were instructed to score each of the 23 questions as to its importance in designing a manual to help teachers in using photographs and photography in teaching.

3.   Participants were one hundred former students who took EDAV 575 ("Photography for the Educator") during a five (5) year period between spring 1988 till summer 1992.

4.   Addresses of recipients, as noted in Section I, were obtained through the Education Department, the Alumni Association, The University of Mississippi Alumni Telephone Directory, and the University Lyceum. 

5.   Initially, forty individuals returned their survey. Following a month waiting period, a letter and telephone follow-up program was initiated. After the follow-up, a total of sixty-five educators, or 65 percent of the subjects, had returned their forms. Of the remaining thirty-five, 15 questionnaires were returned due to incorrect mailing addresses (student had since relocated) while the other twenty (20 percent) were not returned. Of the sixty-five respondents, five provided comments or suggestions relating to what they would like to see in a photographic manual.

 Description of the Group 

All individuals involved in the survey are currently teachers or educators in the public or private school system. While students in EDAV 575, 70 percent were graduates, 20 percent seniors, and 10 percent juniors.  Over 70 percent of the graduate students were working on their master's degree while the remainder were completing their specialist or doctorate. Most respondents were elementary school teachers (grammar and intermediate). None of those responding to the survey mentioned teaching photography related courses or expressed any interest in such future endeavors. Rather than a random sample, individuals within the survey comprised all students, over a period of five years (1988-92), who attended the EDVA 575 course.

Approximately 75 percent of the participants were female and 25 percent were male. A majority were completing graduate level education degrees while a small percentage were from the journalism and art department.