To learn how to operate a 35 mm camera and demonstrate these techniques. To obtain an awareness of their community. To create works of photographic and historical significance. To display their works at their local school.

 Activity

In this activity, the students are taught how to aim the camera, focus correctly, use depth of field, f/stop, shutter speeds and all other mechanics necessary in correct picture taking. Initial activities consist a series of steps including: lectures, videotapes, hands‑on experience and selected readings.  This activity consists of going into the community, singularly or as a group of three, and taking a series of 12 photographs of old abandoned buildings. The film is then developed and printed into 5x7 format (by a professional lab. or corner drug store). Students are then requested to contact older citizens in the community to determine what the buildings were used for in previous times. The information and photos are combined into a display which is presented in the form of a mini photographic essay. 

Group Enrichment Activity 3

      The student will identify and define the seven rules of  photographic composition.

Purpose

To define, verify, and use applications relating to the rules of photographic composition. To recognize visual perception as it relates to individual photographs. To recognize and implement photographic skills, pertaining to composition, in the taking of personal 35mm pictures.

Previous Activities

      Students introduced to camera use.

Current Activity

Initially, students receive video instruction and short lecture and question sessions relating to composition. In this activity, students are to photograph everyday items within the community from a new and unusual perspective. These photographs, when developed and printed, are combined with text to describe the items new perspective (using lines, framing, center of interest, rule of thirds, etc.) and then bound to form a small booklet which will be distributed to elementary students. 

The Camera

      The camera is, indeed, the most important piece of equipment that a photographer can have. Quite frankly, without the camera no picture can be taken. A camera, however, is not always what we perceive it to be. According to The American Heritage Dictionary  (1989) a camera is, "an apparatus consisting of a lightproof enclosure having an aperture with a shuttered lens through which the image of an object is focused and recorded on a  photosensitive film or plate" (p. 100).

Never be intimidated by the more expensive camera or lens. Good 35 mm cameras (Single lens reflex - SLR) can be purchased for about $200.00. According to Feininger (1982):

All 35 mm cameras costing 175 dollars and up are capable of yielding negatives and transparencies of satisfactory technical quality. Furthermore, I am convinced that a photographer who cannot produce effective pictures with a hundred‑dollar camera would do no better with a fifteen hundred‑dollar model. It is not the technical quality of his camera which decides the value of his pictures, but whether or not it is suited to the job at hand. (p. 23)

    Buy a camera that you're happy with, one that suits your temperament, pocketbook, and hands. Too large a camera can be awkward and a hindrance to taking a good picture. If you're left-handed, look for a left handed camera. If you like simplicity, don't go for one with a lot of advanced technical gadgets. Remember, some of the best pictures ever taken were shot by the "Old Masters".

 Types of Cameras

There are many types of cameras but perhaps the best known are:

• 1.   the 35 mm (SLR or viewfinder);

• 2.   the medium format - 2 1/4 x 2 1/4 and 2 1/4 x 2 3/4-inch single-lens reflex (SLR) and twin-lens reflex (TLR,) and 4" x 5";

• 3.   the large format or field camera.

Any time a photographer is interested in dynamic subjects whether they be sporting events, wildlife, people or pets, the 35 mm format is by far the best. Because of its small size and light weight, the 35mm can be carried just about anywhere. From the model F Nikon, built in 1959 (Snyder, 1976), to the ultra-modern, totally electronic Minolta or Olympus, the 35 mm performs like a champ. Durable and fast, the 35mm is ideal for most action subjects. There is, however, one problem with this format. Graininess!  Grain is, according to Jack Schofield (1981), "[t]he random pattern within the photographic emulsion that is made up of the final (processed) metallic silver image. The grain pattern depends on the film emulsion, plus the type and degree of development" (p. 250). The word graininess denotes a subjective measurement of the grain pattern. The 35 mm format, produces an extremely small negative. In fact to blow-up this negative to an 11 x 14 print, it must be enlarged 10 times. When a negative is enlarged, graininess results. The larger the print, the more grain. Therefore, the smaller the negative, the larger the grain. One should note that a number of other variables also effect graininess. When using a film, the higher the ASA or American Standards Association reading (e.g., ASA 100, 200, 400, etc.) the more graininess that is present in the final work.

The following formula (Benedict, 1976), known as the Basic Exposure Formula, explains the use of ASA or ISO

Known as static subject photography, (Feininger, 1982) this form of subject representation permits the photographer to perform precise calculations. One of the advantages of static subjects is that the photographer can use a tripod to maximize sharpness. When shooting fast moving objects, the photographer must either increase the shutter speed (shutter controls the duration of the exposure) or open the diaphragm (a series of overlapping metal leaves that can be adjusted to specific apertures to control the amount of light entering through a lens) (Carver & Lee, 1985). Opening of the diaphragm (aperture) is rated in f/stops. The lower the f/stop (ex., f/2.8), the larger the aperture, the more light entering the camera, the slower the corresponding shutter speed, and the more shallow the depth of field. The larger  the f/stop no., (ex., f/16) means the faster the corresponding shutter speed, that less light enters the camera, a smaller aperture opening, and a greater depth of field. The depth of field is that area of acceptable sharpness in front of and behind the subject that is in sharp focus (Carver & Lee, 1985). In taking photographs, you have probably noticed that some areas are in focus while others are not. In order to have the maximum sharpness in all areas of the photograph, the photographer must use a small aperture (a large f/stop--ex., f./16). Static subjects help in accomplishing this by, as previously stated, allowing for the use of a tripod and f/stops of 64 or higher. This is an area for which the medium and large format camera is especially well-suited. The 35mm, as noted above, is meant for the active and dynamic subject. For the teacher, this type of camera offers the best selection of features, including: ease of operation, light weight, size, and is excellent for use with both dynamic and static subjects.

The Lens

In most cases, when purchasing a camera, one just gets the body. This is especially true for the SLRs and the more expensive medium range cameras. Deciding which lenses are needed becomes a difficult and sometimes confusing endeavor.  Perhaps the most popular lens for the SLR is the normal lens which is usually about 50 mm (focal length -"the distance from the film to the center of the front of the lens (when focused at infinity)" (Horenstein, 1974). In addition to the normal lens, there are the wide-angle and the telephoto. The wide-angle, the most common being either the 28 mm or 35 mm, is excellent for wide-angle shots (i.e., landscapes).  The telephoto lenses are generally the 105mm, 135 mm, and 200 mm. It is also possible to buy 500mm and even 1000 mm.  These lenses are, however, extremely expensive and require a large aperture opening (usually an f/8 or below). Besides landscape photographs, the 90-105 mm lens is excellent for portrait photography.

      Perhaps one of the best bets in purchasing a lens is to buy a zoom lens. The zoom lens, according to The Basic Book of Photography (Grimm, 1985) is "a lens that can be adjusted to varied focal lengths while keeping the subject in focus" (p. 347). The zoom lens in an excellent accessory and at times a definite necessity. The two most popular zooms are the 35-70 mm and the 70-200 mm. With these two lenses in hand, there are very few pictures which cannot be taken. From wide-angle to normal and telephoto, these two lenses will provide a variety of focal lengths. The 70-200mm is an indispensable attachment at weddings, parties, vacationing, and especially for informal portraits. By  setting the lens at 105 mm an excellent normal range close‑up may be taken. By increasing the lens to 200 mm, the pictures take on an interesting air of modeling or sophistication. The 70 mm creates a nice full length shot. It should be noted, that in selecting the zoom over stationary lens (e.g., 35, 50, 105, 200 mm, etc.) one must sacrifice some quality of sharpness. With new technology in lenses, the difference in clarity is not normally perceivable.

In connecting the lens to the camera body, the manufacturers have chosen two approaches. The first, called the screw mount is exactly that - the lens is  screwed into the camera body. The second method is called the bayonet mount. In this mount process, the lens is dropped into a slot, usually indicated by a red dot, and turned slightly. The lens then locks into place. Although normally, one mount is a useful as the other. In an emergency, however, time is of the essence. Even the few seconds required to unscrew and screw on lenses may cause the loss of a picture. For this reason, the bayonet method is usually preferred.

The autofocus lens, a relatively new invention, helps the photographer in determining the correct distance for taking a shot by automatically adjusting the lens to the correct focus (Grimm, 1985). This is accomplished by the use of an optical sensor. Autofocus lenses and cameras are becoming abundant and affordable. It is also possible to exchange some autofocus lenses to other autofocus cameras.  Until recently, the autofocus produced several unfavorable effects. The most obvious was the tendency of the camera lens to focus on the center of the object. This is undesirable if the photographer is attempting to focus on several items or an item outside the center of sharpness. New advances have nearly eliminated this problem.

Another lens which should be discussed is the close-up lens. The close-up lens has the ability to focus on extremely close objects, making it possible to take pictures of flowers, insects, etc. These lenses attach in front of the normal lens and are usually screwed, by the use of threads, onto the normal, telephoto zoom, or individual close-up lens. Close-up lenses are usually referred to in power or strength sequences. Examples would be: +1, +2, & +4 . . .  +10--a plus 10 being the strongest. An increased closeness may be obtained by employing a tube known as an extension tube. According to Grimm (1985), the extension tube is "one or more rigid tubes or rings used for making close-ups; inserted between camera lens and body to increase lens focal length and magnify the subject" (p. 337).

The macro lens is one which is sometimes confused with the close-up lens. The macro lens refers to the lens itself without the use of any extension (ex., close-up attachment or extension tube). This means that the macro lens looks similar to the normal, zoom, or wide-angle variety except that the lens is designed specifically to focus on extremely close objects. The macro lens, although more expensive than the close-up attachments, allows the photographer to take sharper, easier close‑up shots. Some lenses allow the photographer to focus as close as 2 inches in contrast to normal lenses which allow a close focus at no less than 1.5 feet.

      Another consideration in selecting lenses is their price. Lenses, like everything else, vary greatly in cost.  Some are available for less than $100.00, while others prices soar into the thousands. Although lenses are manufactured throughout the world, the best are produced in Germany and Japan - the cheapest in price being Japan. In purchasing a lens, several factors should be taken into consideration. These include: sharpness, maximum aperture opening (e.g., an f/1.2 is better than an f/2.8), and durability. Most lenses made by Nikon, Minolta, Olympus, Cannon are of excellent quality and durability. When it comes to lesser known manufacturers, there are however, several excellent bargains for the cautious buyer. Seek help from an independent professional photographer before purchasing any piece of expensive photo equipment.

Controlling the Depth of Field

Aside from light, one of the most important aspects of photography is controlling the depth of field. This  photographic technique is often times misunderstood or ignored by the novice (in most cases with disastrous consequences). Although previously discussed, this topic deserves some further clarification. 

According to Carver & Lee (1985), depth of field is the "range of sharpness, lying about one third in front of the focus point and two thirds behind . . ." (p. 17). In some cases, it is desirable to have all areas of the photograph in focus. At other times, however, the photographer may wish to have certain areas of the print in focus while others are deliberately out of focus (Feininger, 1982). According to Horenstein (1974) there are three ways of controlling the depth of field. The first and most important control is aperture. By opening and closing the aperture (or increasing or decreasing the f/stop), a photographer can determine the depth of the shot. A large aperture (ex., f/2.8) means a small depth of field while a small aperture (ex., f/16) means a large field. The second way to control the field is by varying the distance between the subject and the camera.  Quite simply, the greater the subject to camera ratio, the larger the depth of field. The final control is the focal length of the lens. A normal lens (50 mm) will provide greater depth of field than a telephoto lens (200 mm) which produces a shallow depth of field.

      In determining the depth of field, the photographer using the SLR is assisted by being allowed to preview the final composition of the shot. "As the aperture gets smaller or larger, the zone of focus visibly increases or decreases" (Horenstein, 1974, p. 28). When using automatic lenses, however, the lens aperture always remains open to its fullest degree. This changes only the second the picture is taken. For this reason, another method must be used for determining or viewing the field. Therefore, many cameras have a manual or preview button on the side of the camera.  When using the preview button the operator, while looking through the camera, presses the button (Horenstein, 1974). This steps down the lens to the prescribed f/stop opening.  What about the depth of field scale? This scale, is located on the barrel of the lens. Printed on the camera lens are two movable scales. The first is the aperture ring which consists of series of f/stop numbers (ex., f/16 11 8 5.6 4 2.8 1.9). The second is the focusing ring. This ring, by turning to either the left or right, brings the camera lens into focus. This ring consists of a series of numbers known as a distance scale. When a subject stands a certain distance from the camera (e.g., 15 ft.) he will be in focus when the distance scale reads 15 feet. When the individual is in focus, turn the aperture ring to determine the correct f/stop setting. If you select a f/8 or any other f/stop number the depth of field can be determined by looking at the small line of numbers between the aperture and focus ring. These numbers are usually set up as follows:

                                                            16'8''*'8'16  depth non-movable ring

                                                                     16 11 8 5.6 4 2.8 1.9

                                                           aperture ring (f/stops)

"A device, built in the lens or camera, that regulates the length of time that light reaches the film to make an exposure." This, according to Tom Grimm (1985, p. 344) is the definition for a shutter. Exactly what does this mean?  This section will attempt to explain to the teacher or amateur photographer, in simple detail, the meaning, workings, and results of the photographic shutter.

The shutter has two main functions: controlling the timing and controlling the movement (Horenstein, 1974). In controlling the timing, the shutter is used to regulate the amount of light entering the lens of the camera and striking the light sensitive film. The time period during which light enters and strikes the film or the period in which the shutter is open is called the shutter speed. Speeds vary on some cameras from thousandths of a second to the "T" and "B" selections which allow for shutter to be locked into an open position. The "T" position (time) allows the shutter to remain open until the shutter button is repressed. The "B" position (bulb) is open as long as the shutter button, bulb, electronic shutter button, etc. is pressed. Once the button is released, the shutter closes. This may be achieved by either directly pressing the button, and holding it down with your finger, or with an accessory known as a cable release. The cable release is "[a] flexible cable that screws into the shutter release and allows the photographer to trip the shutter without pressing the release with his finger; used for time exposures to prevent camera movement" (Grimm, 1985, p. 333). In many cases the release is made of metal and consists of a stiff piece of thin metal which is affixed within a larger piece of hollow tubing. The hollow tubing is screwed into the shutter release on one end and has a metal plunger attachment on the other. When the metal plunger is pressed in, it inserts the thin flexible metal rod into a specially made hole in the shutter release button, thus pressing the button down. The bulb release, similar to the metal cable release, is a plastic or rubber cable which on one end attaches to the shutter button and on the other to a rubber bulb. When the bulb is squeezed, air is forced down the cable and presses the shutter button. As long as the bulb is squeezed, the shutter remains open.

In controlling the movement the shutter, if appropriate to the composition, is used to freeze movement. The faster an object or person moves, the higher shutter speed a photographer must use. If an object is at rest, a shutter speed of 1/30 of a second may be sufficient to provide no blurring. In fact in some cases the shutter may, as previously discussed, be allowed to remain open for seconds or even minutes. If, however, an object is in motion the shutter speed must be set to freeze the movement or action.  A person walking may require a 1/250, while a speed boat may require a shutter speed of 1/1000th of a second. Another item to take under consideration when taking a picture is the steadiness of hand of the photographer. If the photographer moves his camera, even very slightly, there is always the possibility that the picture will be blurred. To prevent this from occurring a photographer should always, when hand holding a camera, use a shutter speed of 1/60 or higher (Eastman, 1981). If a speed lower than this is required, it's always best to use either a tripod or monopod. In a "pinch" a bean bag may be used to steady a camera. In this procedure, a camera is placed on the bag and the shutter released either by an air or cable release.

It should be noted, before moving on from the topic of shutters, that there are two types of shutters. Most photographers prefer the focal plane shutter. The focal plane shutter is located in front of the film and moves either vertically or horizontally across the focal plane. This type of shutter is used with SLR cameras which allows for the interchange of lens and faster speeds. There are however, states Horenstein (1974), two drawbacks. The focal plane shutter produces more noise, (which is not a great consideration unless one is working with excitable subjects) and also vibration, which can at low speeds cause blurring. The leaf shutter which is used in rangefinder cameras is located inside the lens and consists of a series of "overlapping metal blades that open from the center of the lens toward the edges. The blades are controlled through a combination of gears and springs" (Carver & Lee, 1985, p. 24). 

Taking the Picture

    According to Ernst Haas, an internationally recognized photographer, "For me it is important to forget myself when I photograph . . ."(Eastman, 1981, p. 23). There is much to be said for this technique. Just as the Zen Buddhist becomes part of the bow, leading the arrow on its true trajectory, so too must the photographer become a part of the photographic process ‑ leading and being led. "Trust that little voice in your head that says  `Wouldn't it be interesting if . . .' And then do it" (Eastman, 1981,  p. 21). These words by Duane Michals, echo the feelings of many great photographers.

Take pictures for the sheer enjoyment of taking them.  Never get bogged down by technique and lose sight of the fun of photography. There are, however, several things one must know about the rules of composition. As rules, they are made to be broken. But to break a rule, one must first must understand the rule, apply the rule, and determine WHY in certain cases it should be broken. Also be prepared to defend your position why a specific rule of composition has been broken.

The Rules of Composition

• 1.   Rule of Thirds

• 2.   Use of Parallel Lines

• 3.   Framing

• 4.   Center of Interest

• 5.   Pictures with a Purpose

• 6.   Get in Close

• 7.   Background Structure

• 8.   The Horizon Straight

• 9.   Balance

There are many other rules of composition which may be used when taking a photograph. These nine, however, are the most important. In taking a picture, in addition to using the correct film, focusing, determining depth of field and correct lighting, a photographer should carefully consider the following rules of composition. The first is the rule of thirds. According to Carver & Lee (1985) "Avoid dividing the picture into equal parts. Main centers of interest are often more effective slightly off center. Watch for the `dead center' syndrome with 35mm SLR Cameras" (p. 142). Consider that the camera screen or picture can be divided into nine, not just two, portions. Ex.:                              

                   It is important to place the center of interest or main subject along one of these lines. The subject should usually be toward the center and not facing toward the outside edges. Grimm (1985) states, ". . . if the sky is unimportant, the foreground subjects should fill the lower two-thirds of the frame and the sky the upper third"   (p. 185).

Parallel lines refers to the act of letting lines direct the viewers attention toward the center of interest (Eastman, 1981; Grimm, 1985). An example would be if a photographer was attempting to let a building or similar structure be the center of interest. A path or winding road leading to the building could serve as lines, guiding the viewer's eye toward the field of interest. Roads, fences, and paths can serve as leading lines. Ex.: 

         ||----------||------------||-------||

         ||----------||------------||-------||

         ||----------||------------||-------||

         ||----------||------------||-------||

       In using lines in composition, remember that horizontal lines depict speed or movement, while vertical lines suggest strength, height, dignity, and support.

Framing at its simplest, means enclosing or encircling the center of interest naturally. An overhanging branch, the outline of a cliff or rock,  or a tree - all can be used to form a natural boarder above or around a subject. This frame is always in the foreground and can either be in sharp focus or slightly blurred.

For some time, we have spoken of the center of interest. What is a center of interest? Perhaps the best definition is the simplest. The center of interest is that part which is the most interesting to the photographer or viewer. A cluttered photograph can be confusing and very often unappealing. Attempt to keep the subject simple. If possible, it is best to have only one point of interest in each print. Other areas should draw the viewer's attention toward this point.

A picture should always have a purpose. Many individuals who first purchase a camera, take pictures of everything. In time, however, they realize that there should be a reason for each click of the shutter. A picture should make a statement. This is perhaps the main difference between a snapshot and a photograph. Statement. When you speak, you usually have something to say or a point to make. The same should be true of photography.

The photographer should also attempt to move into his subject. This means getting as close as possible without distortion. This eliminates clutter, simplifies the picture, and provides a direct center of interest. Unless you plan on cropping your picture in the developing stage, fill the view finder with only the items wanted in the final photo.  Remember, a picture which shows clutter, too many centers of interest, or shows the subject too far away is MEDIOCRE or mundane.

      One should always be aware of the background structure of the photographic composition. Far too many otherwise excellent pictures have been marred by the occasional tree growing out of the subject's head and the "extra arm syndrome." Always endeavor to take a picture where the background is uncluttered. This prevents disturbing and disruptive backgrounds. If, however, one is forced to take a picture with a "busy" background, shorten the depth of field by using a telephoto lens or selecting a large aperture opening (f/4.5, etc.).

Always keep the horizon level. Regardless of how good a picture may be, a tilted horizon distracts the viewer to such a degree that all other considerations are lost in the confusion.

Balance, the last, but certainly not the least, rule of composition concerns the arrangement of the items in the picture in relation to their size and shape. 

Film, Lighting and Filters

 Film

In the past sections, we have dealt only briefly with the subject of film. Here, we will be primarily interested in the development, processing, use and chemical composition of black & white films. Although color films play a major role in today's photographic world, more professional photographers are returning to the simple realities produced by the b & w negative. In teaching a course on photography, emphasis is placed on monochrome pictures because of the ease of developing and the prohibitive cost of equipment required to develop color.

According to John Hedgecoe (1984) in his book, ThePhotographer's Handbook, film is a "[p]hotographic material consisting of a thin transparent plastic base coated with light-sensitive emulsion. Black and white film has effectively one emulsion layer, while color film has at least three . . ."  (p. 330). Regardless of the various shapes and sizes of film, one thing remains constant. When the film is developed (discussed later) the silver salts (either iodine or bromine) which make up the emulsion are converted to a visual representation known as a negative. When the film is developed, "objects that reflect the most light will appear darker, compared to objects that were dark originally but now appear light in the negative. These conditions are reversed when a print is made from a negative" (Carver & Lee, 1985, p. 27). Although there are various types of films for different cameras, films whether they be black & white or color are divided into four broad categories known as slow, medium, fast and ultra-fast.

The first category, slow films, refer to those which have an ASA of about 64 (note Carver & Lee, 1985 who states that the slow speed range is 25-100 ASA). In this selection of films, the emulsion is made up of extremely small grains of silver halide and is usually covered to improve the resolution of the negative and print. This type of film is best when the final print is to be enlarged above an 11 x 14 format or when great clarity is required. One of the best uses of this film is for still life. Examples of this type of film are: Panatomic-X and Ilford's Pan F.

      The second category is medium-speed film. A medium speed film (between ASA 100-200) is usually used in relatively bright light conditions. Four good examples of this type of film are Kodak Plus, Ektachrome 100, Ilford FP4, and Fuji 100.

The third type of film, in relation to speed, is fast-speed film, such as Kodak  Tri-X (400). Some films in this category range as high as 800 ASA. One of the major short-comings of this film is the large amount of grain and the restrictions of enlargement (Grimm, 1985; Hattersley, 1975; Carver & Lee, 1985).

Ultra-high speed, above 800, is primarily used in dimly lit situations. According to Hedgecoe (1984), these include: dark interiors, night photography, deep shadow outdoors, etc. This type of film can be used at ASA's as high as 3,200.

In regard to black and white film, there are several types of film, including those already discussed  Tri-X (fast), Panatomic-X (slow), Plus-X (125 ASA), T-Max (100 & 400), etc., which can be used by the photographer. These include: infra-red film, reversal film, nuclear film, x-ray film, chromogenic film, autoscreen, lith film and contour line film (for a larger listing of films, see page 139-40 of Grimm, 1985). These films fall outside the realm of this work and are therefore not discussed. A better understanding of these films can be obtained by reading Hedgecoe's The Photographer's Handbook (1984).

In discussing films, exposure bracketing should be mentioned. This technique means that the photographer should take the photograph at a specific f/stop, as related to the film's ASA. If in doubt of obtaining the correct exposure, one may bracket the pictures by taking several shots of the same object but at different f/stops. This process is usually used on static or still life objects. It's impractical to use this technique on fast moving objects.

 Lighting

The word photography means painting with light.  Lighting is, by far, the most important aspect in photography. Without lighting there would be no pictures or, for that matter, no way for man to interpret his environment.

Correct lighting, therefore, determines not only whether a picture is a good or bad, but also makes the art of photography a reality. In this discussion of light and lighting we will cover two major area: natural and artificial. Natural lighting (available or existing) is the light available from normal (natural) sources during the daytime. This type of lighting varies from day to day, season to season and is greatly effected by the weather.  Daylight is by far, in my opinion, the best form of lighting for the beginner. There is very little manipulation necessary to obtain a picture, and complicated flash adjustments are not necessary.

WORKS CITED

 American heritage dictionary. (1989). New York: Dell  Publishing Co.  

Benedict, J.A. and T.W. Shenenberger. (1976). Creative photography. Temple: Media Research & Development, Arizona State University.

Carver, G.T. and E.E. Lee. (1985). Beginning photography.  New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.

Eastman Kodak Co., eds. (1981). More joy of photography.  New York:  Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1981.

Feininger, A. Total photography. (1982). New York: American Photographic Book Publishing.

Grimm, T. (1985). The basic book of photography. New York: New American Library.

Haselgrove, Maurice L. (1963). Photographers' dictionary.  New York: Archer House, Inc.

Hattersley, Ralph. (1975). Beginner's guide to photography.  New York: Dolphin Books.

Hedgecoe, John. (1984). The photographer's handbook. Sec. ed. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Horenstein, H. (1974). Black and white photography - A Basic Manual. Boston: Little, Brown and Co.

Price, William A. (1992). Letter (personal correspondence), Clinton, MS.

Schofield, Jack, ed. (1981). The darkroom book. New York: Ziff-Davis Publishing Co.

Snyder, Norman. (1976). The photography catalog. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers.

The photographer's catalog - Calumet. (1991). Bensenville: Calumet Photographic, Inc. 

CHAPTER II

SAFETY IN THE DARKROOM

Objectives

Students should be able to:

• 1.   identify areas in a darkroom which pose potential health problems;

• 2.   devise a plan whereby these problems may be eliminated;

• 3.   explain the purpose of darkroom procedures.

 Suggested Materials 

Sub-heading Outline and Time Schedule

 WEEK 4--Knowing Your Chemicals, Symptoms, Personal Safety, and Summary

 Activities (grades 1-12)

Have students: 

• 1.   draw a darkroom plan showing all potential hazards;

• 2.   smell and handle the non-toxic chemicals, becoming aware of their feel and odor;

• 3.   try a fake developing session with gloves;

• 4.   clean up a mock chemical spill; and

• 5.   label various chemicals.

 Group Enrichment Activity

 A student will recognize and be able to explain the importance of safety in the darkroom, and identify  potentially dangerous situations. 

Purpose

To provide the student with an ability to understand and explain darkroom safety. To identify chemicals used in a darkroom. To recognize basic darkroom techniques. To analyze these aspects and determine why safety is important. To allow students to design a darkroom which they believe provides safety to the photographer.

Previous activities

camera use and composition

Current Activity

While in the darkroom, students are taught individually and as a group, the potential side‑effects of chemicals used, safety measures, and potential health hazards. Students are then sent to the library to learn all they can about health hazards and safety techniques in the darkroom. An occupational safety consultant also delivers a series of lectures on safety. Student (volunteers) are then asked to explain darkroom safety. Finally they are formed into small groups and asked to combine their learning, and design a safe darkroom. Emphasis is placed on correct ventilation, disposal, chemical spills, and correct mixtures (creativity is important). One person in the group acts as leader and is responsible for the drawing of a safe lab. 

Darkroom Safety^[1]

       Most individuals are first introduced to the wonders of photography either through a Christmas gift or personal purchase of an inexpensive 35mm camera at a local gift shop. Although naive about the meaning of f/stops, aperture, and shutter speed, they begin taking pictures of anything and everything that crosses their path. The author still remembers the joy of carefully removing each roll from the camera (a Christmas gift), placing it in an envelope, and sending it off to be processed.

Children and some adults, however, are impatient. They soon realize that to receive more immediate rewards from their labor, they should set up their own darkroom. Although usually consisting of supplies obtained from the local hardware store and a $169.00 enlarger children feel that they have, indeed, reached a major plateau in photographic achievement. The thrill of developing their first roll of film and printing an enlargement usually leaves them spellbound for days. During this period of ecstasy, they manage to show their "brilliant achievements" to their  parents, friends, and just about anyone else within shouting distance. With all this excitement, it should be noted that, as in other avocations, there are certain health risks.

Know Your Chemicals

When a student enters the darkroom, he/she comes into contact with an array of chemical compounds. These include: ammonium thiosulphate, p‑dihydroxybenzene (hydroquinone), gold chloride, sodium sulphite, aluminum chloride, diethylene glycol, acetic acid, methylaminophenol sulfate (Metol), lead acetate, and a list of over a hundred other potentially toxic substances/chemicals. According to Marjorie Gordon, D.C.R.(R.) (1987) research and consultant radiographer of Mamakau, New Zealand, "When these chemicals are heated to 90 F+, the mixture of gases given off creates a serious potential health hazard to workers from inhalation of the vapours, or by skin absorption. . ." (p. 102). This hazard is usually present, according to an article in the Journal of  the Royal Society of Health, during the day-to-day darkroom activities of the professional or amateur photographer. From mixing developer or fixer, cleaning up spills, disposing of waste (silver, developer, fixer, etc.), and even handling newly processed film, potential danger exists.

According to Gordon (1987) it's quite common to find, during air sampling tests, concentrations of sulphur dioxide, acetic acid, formaldehyde, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and acetaldehyde mixed in the breathable atmosphere of the photographic darkroom. Most of these air concentrations fall within the confines of the Tolerance  Level Value (TLV), although some samples are extremely high. In regard to air contaminants, Penni Bolton, LATG, MIScT (Lond.), MIAT, Senior Research Technician, Research Institute of Pharmacological Sciences at the University of Mississippi, (1991) states that perhaps the greatest problem of possible toxicity is due in part to the synergistic effects (the action of two or more chemicals to achieve an effect of which each is individually incapable) of these substances. Whether immediate in effect, or cumulative in nature, combined compounds do have the potential to produce carcinogenic and mutative states.

Another point to consider, according to the JRSH (Gordon, 1987) is that "the pulmonary transfer of toxic substances as opposed to the gastrointestinal route is that material is delivered directly into the bloodstream . . . this toxic effect appears more rapidly as access to the liver with its detoxifying enzymes is delayed" (p. 102). 

Symptoms

Symptoms vary according to exposure and duration. According to Photo-Lab-Index (1981), conditions may consist of inflammation and burning of the eyes, respiratory conditions, nasal discharge, dermatitis (skin rash), skin sensitization, asthma, tinnitis (ringing in the ears), severe headache, fatigue, nausea, and hoarseness. 

Personal Safety

Guidelines for darkroom safety are quite explicit and if followed provide total personal protection. In many cases, the rules are not obeyed and, in fact, blatantly ignored. When this happens, there is always the opportunity for potential danger. 

Fingers vs. Gloves

Many photographers, both amateur and professional, have found it very easy to forget their gloves. This is especially true when they are in a hurry. It's during these periods of frenzy that they also misplace their print tongs. For this reason, it always seems to be much easier to use their fingers. Because print processing requires constant handing and because most individuals don't like the feeling of "not feeling," they are guilty (on many occasions) of not using gloves. Regardless of the excuses, this practice can be dangerous. This is especially true if a student is sensitive to the various developing agents. Open cuts also pose a danger. Perhaps the most threatening aspect of this technique is when experimenting with a new and personally untested chemical. Although the agent may be perfectly safe by itself, when mixed with the residue of other chemicals on your hands, it may be easily absorbed into the bloodstream with life threatening consequences.           

Ventilation^*

Perhaps the most important consideration in a darkroom is ventilation. It is extremely important that students avoid inhaling potentially dangerous vapors. Therefore, according to Michael Langford (1988) in his book, The Darkroom Handbook all chemicals should be mixed and used in a well-ventilated area. In fact, Langford states that, ideally, chemicals should be mixed outside the darkroom. Regarding ventilation, Gordon (1987) echoes this concern by stating that  [f]umes should be extracted through a hood, duct and  extract fan over the processor to the outside....Wear goggles, impervious gloves and other protective clothing [lab coat or rubber apron] when mixing chemicals. Wear a chemical cartridge respirator when handling chemicals. (p. 103)

This is especially important for an individual who already has some type of respiratory problem (i.e., asthma, bronchitis, or emphysema). For a safe environment, a darkroom fan should change the air once every six minutes. 

The Clean-Up

      It is also extremely important that all areas, including floors and tables, be cleaned after an accidental spill. Just as important is the clean-up which occurs after developing. Too often, students procrastinate about their cleaning duties and leave bottles open, minor spills un-cleaned, and the darkroom a mess. Regardless of how much time it may take, it is important that the room be cleaned after each developing session. For this reason, all areas of the darkroom should be constructed of material that can be easily and safely cleaned. The room's floor should also be equipped with a floor drain.       

Summary

      The darkroom can, and should, be an exciting adventure into the realm of creative expression. It should also be an area free of potential health hazards. On too many occasions, due to poor management and inadequate precautions, the darkroom can be dangerous. A June 1987 issue of the JRSH states (Gordon, 1987) Reported illnesses suffered by workers using . . . photographic chemicals include permanent damage to vocal cords, damage to the central nervous system, damage to the immune system resulting in recurrent infections of trachea, larynx and pharynx, with permanent ventricular hypertrophy [weakness of heart muscle], Alveolitis, Myocarditis, and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus ( p. 103).

By playing it safe and using the necessary precautions, darkroom work can be rewarding, safe, and exciting. Playing it safe is the key.          

Notes

 * Concerning ventilation (Gordon, 1986):

 A.  Instruments
Air flow measurements can be carried out with an anemometer for flat openings, or pilot and tube device for diffusers.
B.  Procedures
1.   Measure air flow at face of all vents, both supply and exhaust. A number of measure-ments are required to obtain a true average for each vent or duct.
      2.   Measure vent and grille sizes.
      3.   Calculate the volume of air extracted or supplied by using the following formula:

                                                               R = A x V x 60

WHEN:

 68 F ............ 10 mins. 

A substitute of sodium carbonate for the borax produces an increase in film speed but more grain. An increase of hydroquinone will produce a higher contrast developer and more grain. To suppress fog, use potassium bromide (.5g/l of  developer). You may wish to substitute chlorohydroquinone or  catechol for hydroquinone.                                                                                           

A store-bought fixer (hypo) may be used either for fixing film or prints. In this example, we are using ZONE VI hypo.

 3 2 qts of water at 85 degrees F.

 Dissolve contents of package in water while stirring constantly. When completely dissolved add cold water to make one gallon of solution For D-76, another Kodak developer, a temperature of between 65‑75 degrees Fahrenheit should be used. It should be noted that for each temperature, a specific time should be used, otherwise the film will be either under or overexposed. 

While discussing developer, it should be noted that the higher the temperature of the solution the more grain that appears on the negative. Due to the relatively small surface of a 35 mm negative, any increase in grain is greatly amplified when the picture is enlarged to an 8 x 10, 11 x 14 or 16 x 20. For this reason, if temperature is a problem, due to lack of adequate room temperature of locale (Southern U. S., India, Central America, etc.) alternative methods should be explored.

One of the best articles written on the reducing of grain under high temperatures was authored by Paul R. Farber (1984) According to Farber, one of the best developers,  Thermofine, was developed and produced by the leading chemist Dr. Edmund W. Lowe. Lowe's chemical was part of the famous Edwal line, distributed by Falcon Safety Products of Mountainside, N.J. The product, no longer made, was akin to the D-23 formula and according to Farber (1984), "contained an additive which permitted its use at elevated temperatures, without danger of frilling or reticulating the emulsion." Thanks to Farber, the formula is provided in the September 1984 issue of PhotoGraphic. The formula is as follows: 

 Mix the chemicals in order, stirring the compound slowly. After each chemical dissolves add the next.  Pour in clean container, and let cool. Temperatures for developing may be obtained from the article. 

The Enlarger

The most important piece of darkroom equipment is the enlarger. Considerable time and effort should be devoted to selecting the best enlarger for your specific needs. Some of the better enlargers are Omega, Durst, and Beseler.

When purchasing an enlarger, one should carefully compare models and prices. Technical reports in leading photographic magazines should also be studied and analyzed. Another way to obtain information is to contact professional photographers who you know and trust. Ask them what type of enlargers they use and why they like, or dislike, their model.

Before buying an enlarger, two things must be considered. Although you may currently be interested in only 35 mm enlargement, you may later move up to a medium or large format camera. Certain enlargers hold only certain negatives. For this reason, it is desirable for an enlarger to hold several sizes of negatives. An enlarger that holds a medium format negative carrier will usually hold a smaller negative. Another consideration is the enlarger's illumination system. There are basically three types of enlarger heads. The first is the condenser type which concentrates light by using a pair of "opposing pieces of convex, optical glass condensers. The light source is usually a single tungsten lamp" (Grimm, 1986, p. 56). The second type of enlarger head is the diffusion type. This enlarger head is constructed to allow light to pass through a frosted piece of glass. It's excellent for portrait photography. The third, and best, type of enlarger is the condenser‑diffuser. This enlarger combines the best attributes of the diffuser and condenser to produce excellent contrast and image brightness without any harshness. An additional kind of enlarger head is the is the cold-light enlarger. As the name suggests, the unit puts off little, or no, heat. As opposed to using a tungsten bulb which produces considerable heat, the cold light unit is composed of a series of gas filled tubes situated above the diffusion glass (Grimm, 1986). This type of light source reduces negative buckle and warping, eliminates hot spots, and reduces print time. One of the best units is manufactured by Beseler and sold by many dealers, including Zone VI.

Most enlargers designed for 35 mm film are condenser type. If, however, you intend to produce fine art quality prints, it's in your best interest to invest in diffused coldlight equipment. If you currently have a condenser enlarger, it may be converted by adding a piece of diffusion glass or opal glass just above the negative carrier. 

The Lens

With most moderate to expensive enlargers, the lens is extra. In fact, in many cases, the lens may cost as much the enlarger. As stated above, an excellent selection of lenses may be purchased either through Zone VI or Calumet.  Regardless of where one buys the lens, remember that no matter what the cost of the enlarger, the most important element of the enlarging process is the lens. A cheap lens makes a cheap enlarger.

Some examples of lenses include: Rodenstock Rodagon, El Nikkor and Schneider Componon - S. These lenses come in all sizes from a focal length of 28 mm to 360 mm. The 50 mm is the standard for 35 mm development and enlarging, while the 105 mm is used for 6x9 cm format size (Calumet, 1991). Some professional photographers, however, prefer using the 80 mm for 35 format size.

When enlarging a print, it's best too avoid using too high, or too low an f/stop. In many cases, a large or small aperture may result in a print being out of focus. This is especially true when the lens is a cheaper brand. For this reason, whatever the maximum f/stop opening, (largest aperture - ex. f/2.8) reduce the opening by three full stops, or use an f/8 as a norm. 

The Negative Carrier

It's always important to consider the negative carrier when purchasing an enlarger. The carrier is used to hold the negative in place and to prevent, as much as possible, the negative from buckling. It is imperative that the carrier does not scratch the negative. If you purchase one that does, it is better to either return the item or replace it with another.

Regarding the carrier. There are primarily two types of units: glass and glass less. The glass carrier contains a piece of glass that covers the negative. This carrier is better at holding the negative and preventing buckling (Feininger, 1976). According to Feininger (1976), the glass less variety is best for 35 mm negatives where dust, rather than buckling, is the greatest problem. 

The Other Features

This section includes contrast filters, magnifiers, paper safe and safelights. Many of these items are matters of personal preference and usability. It is difficult to select any particular item in order of importance, as each  serves its own purpose.

One of the most important, yet least expensive, pieces of darkroom equipment is the paper safe. It's usually made of reinforced black plastic and is used to hold the light sensitive paper. Without the paper safe, a photographer would be required to keep his photographic paper in its original box wrapped the light proof plastic cover.  Although well‑suited for shipping, the plastic wrap makes the procedure of removing paper, rewrapping the plastic cover, and replacing it into the box (in the dark) extremely difficult. With the paper safe, the door is opened and a single sheet removed.

The focusing magnifier varies in price from $29.00 - $159.00 and allows the photographer to focus the enlarger image (the image emitted by the negative when struck by the enlargers light) more precisely than with the naked eye. Poor focusing is one of the major causes of fuzzy enlargements.

The contrast filters are placed in the filter drawer (standard on most professional enlargers) and are used to change the contrast of the print. Although most papers have a specific contrast, some such as Brilliant by Zone VI come in four contrast grades. Several other papers also are rated according to grades, including: Kodabrome II, Elite, Ilfospeed Deluxe Glossy, Ilfospeed Deluxe Pearl, Galerie (Ilford), Seagull G (Oriental), Seagull Portrait RP R (Oriental). There are, however, some papers which change contrast in response to the use of filters. These filters are included in the Ilford Multigrade Filter Kits (set of eleven filters) and Kodak's Polycontrast II filters (11 filters - Grade 0-5 in 2 grade steps.)

Above all else, the darkroom should be a fun place! A place that is safe and comfortable. Comfort can mean different things to different people. The use of a fatigue mat, reduces wear and tear on the legs and feet. A workspace that is low and accessible is important to an individual in a wheelchair.

More and more individuals, who use their darkroom over extended periods, have designed their space in such a way as to allow the operator to sit on a swivel stool or chair and retain access to the enlarger, developing pans, etc.

Notes

¹ The purpose of the safelight is to provide illumination but at the same time, provide a light which is safe for use with light sensitive paper. Different types of photographic papers require different safelight filters or lights. The amber (light) is used for processing contact sheets, polycontrast paper and regular types of photographic papers. The amber (dark) filter is primarily used for Panalure,  Ektacolor, and Ektachrome papers. 

                    ₂

Types of developers 

                  ACU-1                Atomal                   FG7                     UFG                   ID-11 Plus               D-76

                  Acufine                Rodinal                                                                         Ilfosol 2                    DK-50

                   Diafine                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       

Other less-used Kodak developers include:

• D-11 -- general use

• D-19 -- for spectroscopic films & plates

• D-50 -- for commercial & portrait films

• Durafin -- commercial photofinishing of roll film

• Versamat -- for processing in the Versamat processor