To learn how to operate a 35 mm camera and demonstrate these techniques. To obtain an awareness of their community. To create works of photographic and historical significance. To display their works at their local school.

 Activity

In this activity, the students are taught how to aim the camera, focus correctly, use depth of field, f/stop, shutter speeds and all other mechanics necessary in correct picture taking. Initial activities consist a series of steps including: lectures, videotapes, hands‑on experience and selected readings.  This activity consists of going into the community, singularly or as a group of three, and taking a series of 12 photographs of old abandoned buildings. The film is then developed and printed into 5x7 format (by a professional lab. or corner drug store). Students are then requested to contact older citizens in the community to determine what the buildings were used for in previous times. The information and photos are combined into a display which is presented in the form of a mini photographic essay. 

Group Enrichment Activity 3

      The student will identify and define the seven rules of  photographic composition.

Purpose

To define, verify, and use applications relating to the rules of photographic composition. To recognize visual perception as it relates to individual photographs. To recognize and implement photographic skills, pertaining to composition, in the taking of personal 35mm pictures.

Previous Activities

      Students introduced to camera use.

Current Activity

Initially, students receive video instruction and short lecture and question sessions relating to composition. In this activity, students are to photograph everyday items within the community from a new and unusual perspective. These photographs, when developed and printed, are combined with text to describe the items new perspective (using lines, framing, center of interest, rule of thirds, etc.) and then bound to form a small booklet which will be distributed to elementary students. 

The Camera

      The camera is, indeed, the most important piece of equipment that a photographer can have. Quite frankly, without the camera no picture can be taken. A camera, however, is not always what we perceive it to be. According to The American Heritage Dictionary  (1989) a camera is, "an apparatus consisting of a lightproof enclosure having an aperture with a shuttered lens through which the image of an object is focused and recorded on a  photosensitive film or plate" (p. 100).

Never be intimidated by the more expensive camera or lens. Good 35 mm cameras (Single lens reflex - SLR) can be purchased for about $200.00. According to Feininger (1982):

All 35 mm cameras costing 175 dollars and up are capable of yielding negatives and transparencies of satisfactory technical quality. Furthermore, I am convinced that a photographer who cannot produce effective pictures with a hundred‑dollar camera would do no better with a fifteen hundred‑dollar model. It is not the technical quality of his camera which decides the value of his pictures, but whether or not it is suited to the job at hand. (p. 23)

    Buy a camera that you're happy with, one that suits your temperament, pocketbook, and hands. Too large a camera can be awkward and a hindrance to taking a good picture. If you're left-handed, look for a left handed camera. If you like simplicity, don't go for one with a lot of advanced technical gadgets. Remember, some of the best pictures ever taken were shot by the "Old Masters".

 Types of Cameras

There are many types of cameras but perhaps the best known are:

• 1.   the 35 mm (SLR or viewfinder);

• 2.   the medium format - 2 1/4 x 2 1/4 and 2 1/4 x 2 3/4-inch single-lens reflex (SLR) and twin-lens reflex (TLR,) and 4" x 5";

• 3.   the large format or field camera.

Any time a photographer is interested in dynamic subjects whether they be sporting events, wildlife, people or pets, the 35 mm format is by far the best. Because of its small size and light weight, the 35mm can be carried just about anywhere. From the model F Nikon, built in 1959 (Snyder, 1976), to the ultra-modern, totally electronic Minolta or Olympus, the 35 mm performs like a champ. Durable and fast, the 35mm is ideal for most action subjects. There is, however, one problem with this format. Graininess!  Grain is, according to Jack Schofield (1981), "[t]he random pattern within the photographic emulsion that is made up of the final (processed) metallic silver image. The grain pattern depends on the film emulsion, plus the type and degree of development" (p. 250). The word graininess denotes a subjective measurement of the grain pattern. The 35 mm format, produces an extremely small negative. In fact to blow-up this negative to an 11 x 14 print, it must be enlarged 10 times. When a negative is enlarged, graininess results. The larger the print, the more grain. Therefore, the smaller the negative, the larger the grain. One should note that a number of other variables also effect graininess. When using a film, the higher the ASA or American Standards Association reading (e.g., ASA 100, 200, 400, etc.) the more graininess that is present in the final work.

The following formula (Benedict, 1976), known as the Basic Exposure Formula, explains the use of ASA or ISO

Known as static subject photography, (Feininger, 1982) this form of subject representation permits the photographer to perform precise calculations. One of the advantages of static subjects is that the photographer can use a tripod to maximize sharpness. When shooting fast moving objects, the photographer must either increase the shutter speed (shutter controls the duration of the exposure) or open the diaphragm (a series of overlapping metal leaves that can be adjusted to specific apertures to control the amount of light entering through a lens) (Carver & Lee, 1985). Opening of the diaphragm (aperture) is rated in f/stops. The lower the f/stop (ex., f/2.8), the larger the aperture, the more light entering the camera, the slower the corresponding shutter speed, and the more shallow the depth of field. The larger  the f/stop no., (ex., f/16) means the faster the corresponding shutter speed, that less light enters the camera, a smaller aperture opening, and a greater depth of field. The depth of field is that area of acceptable sharpness in front of and behind the subject that is in sharp focus (Carver & Lee, 1985). In taking photographs, you have probably noticed that some areas are in focus while others are not. In order to have the maximum sharpness in all areas of the photograph, the photographer must use a small aperture (a large f/stop--ex., f./16). Static subjects help in accomplishing this by, as previously stated, allowing for the use of a tripod and f/stops of 64 or higher. This is an area for which the medium and large format camera is especially well-suited. The 35mm, as noted above, is meant for the active and dynamic subject. For the teacher, this type of camera offers the best selection of features, including: ease of operation, light weight, size, and is excellent for use with both dynamic and static subjects.

The Lens

In most cases, when purchasing a camera, one just gets the body. This is especially true for the SLRs and the more expensive medium range cameras. Deciding which lenses are needed becomes a difficult and sometimes confusing endeavor.  Perhaps the most popular lens for the SLR is the normal lens which is usually about 50 mm (focal length -"the distance from the film to the center of the front of the lens (when focused at infinity)" (Horenstein, 1974). In addition to the normal lens, there are the wide-angle and the telephoto. The wide-angle, the most common being either the 28 mm or 35 mm, is excellent for wide-angle shots (i.e., landscapes).  The telephoto lenses are generally the 105mm, 135 mm, and 200 mm. It is also possible to buy 500mm and even 1000 mm.  These lenses are, however, extremely expensive and require a large aperture opening (usually an f/8 or below). Besides landscape photographs, the 90-105 mm lens is excellent for portrait photography.

      Perhaps one of the best bets in purchasing a lens is to buy a zoom lens. The zoom lens, according to The Basic Book of Photography (Grimm, 1985) is "a lens that can be adjusted to varied focal lengths while keeping the subject in focus" (p. 347). The zoom lens in an excellent accessory and at times a definite necessity. The two most popular zooms are the 35-70 mm and the 70-200 mm. With these two lenses in hand, there are very few pictures which cannot be taken. From wide-angle to normal and telephoto, these two lenses will provide a variety of focal lengths. The 70-200mm is an indispensable attachment at weddings, parties, vacationing, and especially for informal portraits. By  setting the lens at 105 mm an excellent normal range close‑up may be taken. By increasing the lens to 200 mm, the pictures take on an interesting air of modeling or sophistication. The 70 mm creates a nice full length shot. It should be noted, that in selecting the zoom over stationary lens (e.g., 35, 50, 105, 200 mm, etc.) one must sacrifice some quality of sharpness. With new technology in lenses, the difference in clarity is not normally perceivable.

In connecting the lens to the camera body, the manufacturers have chosen two approaches. The first, called the screw mount is exactly that - the lens is  screwed into the camera body. The second method is called the bayonet mount. In this mount process, the lens is dropped into a slot, usually indicated by a red dot, and turned slightly. The lens then locks into place. Although normally, one mount is a useful as the other. In an emergency, however, time is of the essence. Even the few seconds required to unscrew and screw on lenses may cause the loss of a picture. For this reason, the bayonet method is usually preferred.

The autofocus lens, a relatively new invention, helps the photographer in determining the correct distance for taking a shot by automatically adjusting the lens to the correct focus (Grimm, 1985). This is accomplished by the use of an optical sensor. Autofocus lenses and cameras are becoming abundant and affordable. It is also possible to exchange some autofocus lenses to other autofocus cameras.  Until recently, the autofocus produced several unfavorable effects. The most obvious was the tendency of the camera lens to focus on the center of the object. This is undesirable if the photographer is attempting to focus on several items or an item outside the center of sharpness. New advances have nearly eliminated this problem.

Another lens which should be discussed is the close-up lens. The close-up lens has the ability to focus on extremely close objects, making it possible to take pictures of flowers, insects, etc. These lenses attach in front of the normal lens and are usually screwed, by the use of threads, onto the normal, telephoto zoom, or individual close-up lens. Close-up lenses are usually referred to in power or strength sequences. Examples would be: +1, +2, & +4 . . .  +10--a plus 10 being the strongest. An increased closeness may be obtained by employing a tube known as an extension tube. According to Grimm (1985), the extension tube is "one or more rigid tubes or rings used for making close-ups; inserted between camera lens and body to increase lens focal length and magnify the subject" (p. 337).

The macro lens is one which is sometimes confused with the close-up lens. The macro lens refers to the lens itself without the use of any extension (ex., close-up attachment or extension tube). This means that the macro lens looks similar to the normal, zoom, or wide-angle variety except that the lens is designed specifically to focus on extremely close objects. The macro lens, although more expensive than the close-up attachments, allows the photographer to take sharper, easier close‑up shots. Some lenses allow the photographer to focus as close as 2 inches in contrast to normal lenses which allow a close focus at no less than 1.5 feet.

      Another consideration in selecting lenses is their price. Lenses, like everything else, vary greatly in cost.  Some are available for less than $100.00, while others prices soar into the thousands. Although lenses are manufactured throughout the world, the best are produced in Germany and Japan - the cheapest in price being Japan. In purchasing a lens, several factors should be taken into consideration. These include: sharpness, maximum aperture opening (e.g., an f/1.2 is better than an f/2.8), and durability. Most lenses made by Nikon, Minolta, Olympus, Cannon are of excellent quality and durability. When it comes to lesser known manufacturers, there are however, several excellent bargains for the cautious buyer. Seek help from an independent professional photographer before purchasing any piece of expensive photo equipment.

Controlling the Depth of Field

Aside from light, one of the most important aspects of photography is controlling the depth of field. This  photographic technique is often times misunderstood or ignored by the novice (in most cases with disastrous consequences). Although previously discussed, this topic deserves some further clarification. 

According to Carver & Lee (1985), depth of field is the "range of sharpness, lying about one third in front of the focus point and two thirds behind . . ." (p. 17). In some cases, it is desirable to have all areas of the photograph in focus. At other times, however, the photographer may wish to have certain areas of the print in focus while others are deliberately out of focus (Feininger, 1982). According to Horenstein (1974) there are three ways of controlling the depth of field. The first and most important control is aperture. By opening and closing the aperture (or increasing or decreasing the f/stop), a photographer can determine the depth of the shot. A large aperture (ex., f/2.8) means a small depth of field while a small aperture (ex., f/16) means a large field. The second way to control the field is by varying the distance between the subject and the camera.  Quite simply, the greater the subject to camera ratio, the larger the depth of field. The final control is the focal length of the lens. A normal lens (50 mm) will provide greater depth of field than a telephoto lens (200 mm) which produces a shallow depth of field.

      In determining the depth of field, the photographer using the SLR is assisted by being allowed to preview the final composition of the shot. "As the aperture gets smaller or larger, the zone of focus visibly increases or decreases" (Horenstein, 1974, p. 28). When using automatic lenses, however, the lens aperture always remains open to its fullest degree. This changes only the second the picture is taken. For this reason, another method must be used for determining or viewing the field. Therefore, many cameras have a manual or preview button on the side of the camera.  When using the preview button the operator, while looking through the camera, presses the button (Horenstein, 1974). This steps down the lens to the prescribed f/stop opening.  What about the depth of field scale? This scale, is located on the barrel of the lens. Printed on the camera lens are two movable scales. The first is the aperture ring which consists of series of f/stop numbers (ex., f/16 11 8 5.6 4 2.8 1.9). The second is the focusing ring. This ring, by turning to either the left or right, brings the camera lens into focus. This ring consists of a series of numbers known as a distance scale. When a subject stands a certain distance from the camera (e.g., 15 ft.) he will be in focus when the distance scale reads 15 feet. When the individual is in focus, turn the aperture ring to determine the correct f/stop setting. If you select a f/8 or any other f/stop number the depth of field can be determined by looking at the small line of numbers between the aperture and focus ring. These numbers are usually set up as follows:

                                                            16'8''*'8'16  depth non-movable ring

                                                                     16 11 8 5.6 4 2.8 1.9

                                                           aperture ring (f/stops)

"A device, built in the lens or camera, that regulates the length of time that light reaches the film to make an exposure." This, according to Tom Grimm (1985, p. 344) is the definition for a shutter. Exactly what does this mean?  This section will attempt to explain to the teacher or amateur photographer, in simple detail, the meaning, workings, and results of the photographic shutter.

The shutter has two main functions: controlling the timing and controlling the movement (Horenstein, 1974). In controlling the timing, the shutter is used to regulate the amount of light entering the lens of the camera and striking the light sensitive film. The time period during which light enters and strikes the film or the period in which the shutter is open is called the shutter speed. Speeds vary on some cameras from thousandths of a second to the "T" and "B" selections which allow for shutter to be locked into an open position. The "T" position (time) allows the shutter to remain open until the shutter button is repressed. The "B" position (bulb) is open as long as the shutter button, bulb, electronic shutter button, etc. is pressed. Once the button is released, the shutter closes. This may be achieved by either directly pressing the button, and holding it down with your finger, or with an accessory known as a cable release. The cable release is "[a] flexible cable that screws into the shutter release and allows the photographer to trip the shutter without pressing the release with his finger; used for time exposures to prevent camera movement" (Grimm, 1985, p. 333). In many cases the release is made of metal and consists of a stiff piece of thin metal which is affixed within a larger piece of hollow tubing. The hollow tubing is screwed into the shutter release on one end and has a metal plunger attachment on the other. When the metal plunger is pressed in, it inserts the thin flexible metal rod into a specially made hole in the shutter release button, thus pressing the button down. The bulb release, similar to the metal cable release, is a plastic or rubber cable which on one end attaches to the shutter button and on the other to a rubber bulb. When the bulb is squeezed, air is forced down the cable and presses the shutter button. As long as the bulb is squeezed, the shutter remains open.

In controlling the movement the shutter, if appropriate to the composition, is used to freeze movement. The faster an object or person moves, the higher shutter speed a photographer must use. If an object is at rest, a shutter speed of 1/30 of a second may be sufficient to provide no blurring. In fact in some cases the shutter may, as previously discussed, be allowed to remain open for seconds or even minutes. If, however, an object is in motion the shutter speed must be set to freeze the movement or action.  A person walking may require a 1/250, while a speed boat may require a shutter speed of 1/1000th of a second. Another item to take under consideration when taking a picture is the steadiness of hand of the photographer. If the photographer moves his camera, even very slightly, there is always the possibility that the picture will be blurred. To prevent this from occurring a photographer should always, when hand holding a camera, use a shutter speed of 1/60 or higher (Eastman, 1981). If a speed lower than this is required, it's always best to use either a tripod or monopod. In a "pinch" a bean bag may be used to steady a camera. In this procedure, a camera is placed on the bag and the shutter released either by an air or cable release.</