The Development of a Manual for the Use of Still Photography in the Classroom by Dr. Carl Edwin Lindgren

Table 1

Mean Responses on Questions Dealing with the History and Philosophy of Photography on a Scale of 1-5

where 1 is of Little Value and 5 is Greatest Value * **

Pre-1839 1839-Pres. Future Art Form Color vs B&W

Overall Responses

3.06

3.85

3.83

4.37

2.74

Teachers of Grades 1-5 Responses

2.67

3.41

3.89

4.41

2.70

Teachers of Grades 6-8 Responses

3.05

3.88

3.65

3.82

3.17

Teachers of Grades 9-12 Responses

3.57

4.38

3.90

4.76

2.43

* On this and tables following that deal with averages, the mean was determined by assigning five points to the areas, defined by the questions, that possess the greatest value and one point to the ones with the little value. The numbers 4 (greater), 3 (of value), and 2 (some value) represent descending importance.

** See Appendix C for listing of each score per question and its statistical analysis in relation to standard deviation, variance, coefficient variance, etc.

Table 2

Responses and Percentages to Questions under the Section on History and Philosophy of

Photography: A Ranking for each on a 1-5 Scale where 1 is of Little Value and 5 is Greatest Value

Photography, Pre-1839

Value

Responses

Percent

16.9

9.2

35.4

27.7

10.8

Photography, 1839-Present

Value

Responses

Percent

6.2

16.9

29.2

38.5

Photography in the Future

Value

Responses

Percent

3.1

30.8

33.8

29.2

Photography as an Art Form

Value

Responses

Percent

3.1

1.5

7.7

30.8

56.9

Color vs. Black & White Still Photography

Value

Responses

Percent

16.9

33.8

23.1

10.8

15.4

Photography as an Art Form

Individuals responding to question four ranked its importance much higher than questions on history or future developments. The mean score was 4.37 and showed the extent to which educators believe that photography is an art form. Thirty-seven educators (56.9 percent) ranked the question a five while only two (3.1 percent) gave the question a one. Fifty-seven respondents (88.6 percent) gave the question values of four and five.

Color vs. Black & White (Still Photos)

In the final question of this section, relating to color vs. the black and white print, teachers showed little interest. With a 2.74, this area received the lowest value of the section. The percentage of fives was low, with only 10 participants (15.4 percent) valuing the question a five while thirty-three individuals (16.9 and 33.8 percent respectively) marked one and two.

Uses of Photography

Table 3 illustrates the mean value respondents attributed to each of the five questions in Uses of the Camera. Table 4 presents a tally of individual responses and percentages for each of the 1-5 possibilities, where 1 is of little value and 5 is greatest value.

Travel and Nature Photography

In this section, question six asked the respondents to indicate their preference (little or greatest value) for including travel and nature photography in a manual. The mean score in this question was 3.34. Thirteen respondents (20 percent) scored this question a five while only five (7.7 percent) provided a value of one.

Trick, Abstract, and Infra-red Photography

Question seven, pertaining to trick, abstract and infra-red photography, had a mean value of 3.14. This value was the lowest in the section on Uses of Photography. Twenty-seven responses fell toward the center (over 41.5 percent marking three) while only five (7.7 percent) gave the question a value of one and eight (12.3 percent) a value of five.

Table 3

Mean Responses on Questions Dealing with the Uses of Photography on a Scale of

1-5 where 1 is of Little Value and 5 is Greatest Value

Travel Trick Recording Hobby Career

Overall Responses

3.34

3.14

3.51

3.85

4.03

Teachers of Grades 1-5 Responses

3.30

3.11

3.50

3.62

3.52

Teachers of Grade 6-8 Responses

3.71

3.23

3.35

3.88

4.06

Teachers of Grades 9-12 Responses

3.10

3.67

4.10

4.67

Table 4

Responses and Percentages to Questions under the Section on Uses of Photography: A Ranking

for each on a 1-5 Scale where 1 is of Little Value and 5 is Greatest Value

Travel and Nature Photography

Value

Responses

Percent

7.7

16.9

29.2

26.2

20.0

Trick, Abstract and Infra-red Photography

Value

Responses

Percent

7.7

16.9

41.5

21.5

12.3

Recording Events and Documentation

Value

Responses

Percent

6.2

19.9

21.5

30.8

24.6

Photography as a Hobby

Value

Responses

Percent

3.1

13.8

18.5

24.6

40.0

Careers in Photography

Value

Responses

Percent

4.6

9.2

15.4

20.0

50.8

Recording Events and Documentation

Question eight pertained to the use of photography in recording events and documenting personal or business transactions. Respondents rated the question 3.51 on a 1-5 scale. As in the previous question, values 3 and 4 were marked most often, providing a combined score of 34 responses (over 52.3 percent). Sixteen respondents (over 24.6 percent) rated the question a five while only four (6.2 percent) marked the question a one, or having little value.

Photography as a Hobby

Question nine relates to the value of hobby photography. The mean was 3.85. While only two individuals (3.1 percent) gave the question a value of one, 26 participants (40.0 percent) scored the question a five. A combining of values 3, 4, and 5 (in the 1-5 scoring) showed a score of over 83.1 percent.

Careers in Photography

Question ten relates to positions, jobs, and opportunities in the field of photography. This question was of particular interest to the participants. The mean score was 4.03 and shows the extent to which the participants believe career opportunities should be included in a photographic manual. Thirty-three (over 50.7 percent) of the recipients marked the question a five (as having the greatest value), while only three (4.6 percent) saw the area as having little value (1).

Using the Camera

This section pertains to the parts and care of a camera, types, mechanics and finally the taking and composing of a photo. Table 5 shows the mean value respondents attributed to each of the five questions. Table 6 shows a tally of ratings and corresponding percentages.

Parts and Care of the Camera

Question eleven is concerned with the practical aspects of the camera. The respondents gave this area, parts and care of a camera, a rating of 4.57. Forty-three individuals (66.2 percent) rated Parts and Care of the Camera a five while only one respondent (1.5 percent) felt that this aspect of photography had little value in a teacher's manual.

Table 5

Mean Responses on Questions Dealing with Using the Camera on a Scale of 1-5 where 1 is

of Little Value and 5 is Greatest Value

Parts Types Mechanics Taking Composing

Overall Responses

4.57

4.51

4.40

4.65

4.58

Teachers of Grades 1-5 Responses

4.33

4.37

4.22

4.63

4.44

Teachers of Grades 6-8 Responses

4.65

4.53

4.41

Teachers of Grades 9-12 Responses

4.81

4.67

4.62

4.86

4.90

Table 6

Responses and Percentages to Questions under the Section on Using the Camera:

A Ranking for each on a 1-5 Scale where 1 is of Little Value and 5 is Greatest Value

Parts and Care of the Camera

Value

Responses

Percent

Types of Cameras

Value

Responses

Percent

1.5

6.2

32.3

60.0

Mechanics of a Camera

Value

Responses

Percent

4.6

6.2

34.8

55.4

Making a Photograph

Value

Responses

Percent

4.6

26.2

69.2

Composing the Picture

Value

Responses

Percent

12.3

16.9

70.8

Types of Cameras

Question twelve received a mean rating of 4.51 which was slightly less than Parts and Care of the Camera. Thirty-nine respondents (60.0 percent) provided a score value of 5. None of the responses were scored 1.

Mechanics of a Camera

Question thirteen asked respondents to indicate the value they would place on the mechanics of camera use. This item received a score value of 4.4 of which thirty-six responses (55.4 percent) were five.

Taking a Photograph

Question fourteen relates to the value of using the correct procedure in taking the photograph. The mean was 4.65. While none of the recipients gave the question a value of one, forty-five participants (69.2 percent) scored the question a five. A combining of values 3, 4, and 5 (in the 1-5 scale) resulted in a score of 100 percent.

Composing the Picture

Question fifteen relates to the seven rules of composition. This question was of particular interest to the participants. The mean score was 4.58 and shows the extent to which the participants believe composition (art aspect) should be included in a photographic manual. Forty-six (70.8 percent) recipients marked the question a five (as having the greatest value), while none of the responses were a one or two.

Developing and Processing

Table 7 illustrates the mean value respondents attach to each of the three questions in Developing and Processing (section 4). Table 8 presents a count of individual scores and percent rating for each of the 1-5 potentialities.

Developing the Film

In this segment, question sixteen asked respondents to indicate their preference (little or greatest value) for including the process of film development in a photographic manual. The mean score of this question was 4.51. Forty-five (69.2 percent) respondents scored this question a five while two (3.1 percent) provided a value of one. The value of including developing (69%) in a manual corresponded to the 69 percent scored on question thirteen, Mechanics of a Camera.

Table 7

Mean Responses on Questions Dealing with Developing and Processing on a Scale of

1-5 where 1 is of Little Value and 5 is Greatest Value

Developing Care of Negative Equipment & Safety

Overall Responses

4.51

4.60

4.42

Teachers of Grades 1-5 Responses

4.48

4.37

Teachers of Grades 6-8 Responses

4.12

4.47

3.94

Teachers of Grades 9-12 Responses

4.86

Table 8

Responses and Percentages to Questions under the Section on Developing and Processing:

A Ranking for each on a 1-5 Scale where 1 is of Little Value and 5 is Greatest Value

Developing the Film

Value

Responses

Percent

3.1

1.5

7.7

18.5

69.2

Care of the Negative

Value

Responses

Percent

1.5

6.2

21.5

70.8

Darkroom Equipment, Safety, and Chemicals

Value

Responses

Percent

3.1

6.2

24.6

63.5

Care of the Negative

Question seventeen, pertaining to negative care, had a mean value of 4.6. This question's value was the highest of the segment on Developing and Processing. Most of the responses fell toward "greatest" with forty-six participants (70.8 percent) marking the question a five. Sixty respondents (92.3 percent) ranked the question either four or five with none of the participants marking values of one or two.

Darkroom Equipment, Safety, and Chemicals

Question eighteen applied to the use of darkroom equipment and the use of safety techniques when working with darkroom chemicals. Respondents rated the question 4.42 on a 1-5 scale. Fifty-seven respondents (87.6 percent) of the respondents marked question either four or five.

According to one of the respondents, ". . . as teachers, we should focus on taking pictures, developing pictures, displaying the finished pictures, and finally darkroom safety and clean-up."

Framing Your Print

Table 9 illustrates the mean value respondents attributed to the two questions on Framing Your Print (section 2). Table 10 presents a tally of individual scores and percent rating for each of the 1-5 possibilities.

Matting, Framing, and Displaying Your Work

In this section, question nineteen asked the respondents to indicate their preference (little or great value) of including matting, framing, and techniques of displaying the final print, in a manual. The mean score on this question was 3.38. Sixteen respondents (24.6 percent) scored this question a five while only 7.7 percent provided a value of one.

Collage, Montage, and Shadow Boxes

Question twenty, pertaining to novel ways of displaying the final print, had a mean value of 3.28. Most of the responses fell toward the center with twenty-two educators (33.8 percent) marking three while only six (9.2 percent) ranked the question a value of one and fifteen (23.1 percent) a value of five.

Table 10

Responses and Percentages to Questions under the Section on Framing Your Print:

A Ranking for each on a 1-5 Scale where 1 is of Little Value and 5 is Greatest Value

Matting, Framing and Displaying

Value

Responses

Percent

7.7

15.4

32.3

20.0

24.6

Collage, Montage, and Shadow Boxes

Value

Responses

Percent

9.2

16.9

33.8

16.9

23.1

Table 11

Mean Responses on Questions Dealing with Digital and 16mm Photography on a Scale of

1-5 where 1 is of Little Value and 5 is Greatest Value

Photography & Computer VCR Photography 16mm Photo

Overall Responses

3.68

3.14

2.47

Teachers of Grades 1-5 Responses

3.52

3.11

2.70

Teachers of Grades 6-8 Responses

3.35

3.00

2.53

Teachers of Grades 9-12 Responses

4.14

3.28

2.14

Table 12

Responses and Percentages to Questions under the Section on Digital and 16mm

Photography: Ranking for each on a 1-5 Scale where 1 is of Little Value and 5 is Greatest Value

Photography and the Computer

Value

Responses

Percent

11.8

16.9

23.0

38.5

VCR Photography

Value

Responses

Percent

13.8

24.6

20.0

16.9

24.6

16mm Photography

Value

Responses

Percent

27.7

36.9

9.2

12.3

13.8

SECTION V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter is designed to present a summary of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations resulting from the research conducted. The purpose of the research project was to provide teachers with an aid to help them in preparing students in the art and technique of photography. Therefore, the specific objective of the study was to prepare a teacher's manual containing objectives, activities, informational text, references, practical applications and vocabulary. The manual will be designed according to the findings of the research survey and, to a certain extent, from information obtained from the review of literature.

The research method used was a survey of 100 educators who, as students at the University of Mississippi, were enrolled in the education course EDAV 575. This survey contacted only those individuals who were enrolled in the course during the last five years it was taught (1988-92).

Letters and copies of the questionnaire were mailed to participants. Names of former students were obtained from the School of Education grade rolls. Addresses were obtained from Alumni records, phone directories, and from the University's Admissions and Records department. As previously noted (Chapter III), a follow-up phone and letter survey was conducted in an attempt to contact those individuals who had not returned questionnaires.

After the questionnaire was conducted, the data was compiled and analyzed.

Summary of Findings

Findings are based on the criteria that questions ranked "of value," "greater value," or "greatest value" are included in the manual. Questions that were ranked "of little value" or "some value" are not included except when the review of literature strongly supports such input.

Participants indicated that the following areas, with greater values were important for inclusion in a manual. They were, in order of overall value: taking a photograph; care of the photographic negative; picture composition; parts and care of the camera; [types of cameras; film developing;];^* darkroom equipment, safety, and chemical use; mechanics of a camera; photography as an art form and careers in photography. Of these ten, the areas relating to hands-on activities (e.g., taking a picture, composing, developing, negative care, etc.) received the highest marks. Of value (in order of value) were the areas: [photography as a hobby; photographic historyC1839-];^* photography in the future; photography and the computer; documenting events through photography; ways of displaying the final photographic work; travel and nature photography; creative activities (collage, montage, etc.); [VCR photography; trick, abstract, and infra-red techniques];* and photography's pre-history. The areas found of value in the survey were supported by the review of literature.

Both the review of literature (De Francesco, 1958; Utech, 1968; McIsaac, 1981; Bernstein, 1979) and this survey indicates that teachers saw photography as an art form and an important means of developing standards of appreciation and taste. With emphasis on aesthetic values of photography and the hands-on approach, the survey substantiates the literature (McIsaac, 1980; Davidson, 1992) which emphasized both technical and creative approaches to photography.

Travel and trick photography were rated slightly higher by grammar/intermediate and junior high teachers than by high school teachers. Overall in order of preference, high school teachers provided higher scoring values to the other nineteen of the twenty-one remaining questions. They included: composition; [taking a picture; film developing; negative care; darkroom equipment, safety, and chemicals];^* parts and care of the camera; photography as an art form; [photographic careers; types of cameras];^* mechanics of a camera; photographic history 1839-; photography and computers; photography as a hobby; photographer's future; documentation using photography; [photography's pre-history; matting, framing and display];^* collage, montage, and shadow boxes; and VCR photography. The survey reflected the findings of the literature review (Rice, 1958) and emphasized that photography has to be perceived as an important part of any secondary school curriculum.

Under uses of photography, the question relating to careers in photography rated highest. This observation was especially true of high school and junior high teachers. Elementary teachers (grades 1-5), however, were more inclined to rate equally the questions on photography as a hobby and careers in photography.

Unlike the other areas of the questionnaire, the sections relating to hands-on activities were rated consecutively higher by all three teacher grade levels. Teachers ranked hands-on activities such as picture-taking and care of photographic negatives the highest of any activity in the questionnaire. These two areas received a combined mean score of 4.625. Composition and care of the negative received more marks of five, on a scale of one to five, than any question on the survey. They each received 71 percent of the survey population.

In the section on developing and processing, high school educators ranked developing, care of photographic negatives, and darkroom equipment and safety with identical mean value scores. These combined scores were the highest of any section. It was surprising, however, that elementary and junior high teachers rated care of negatives more important than photographic developing or darkroom safety.

Concerning photography and its integration with current electronic technology, the relatively low scores (in relation to hands-on activities) assigned to the amalgamation of computers, VCR and 16mm technology with still photography were somewhat unexpected. Perhaps this is due, in part, to most respondent's inability to see a clear relationship between electronic technology and still photography. Respondents provided such low marks for 16mm photography as to prevent its inclusion in the proposed manual. The use of computers and VCR technology also received combined mean scores of only 3.405 (on a 1-5 scale). High school teachers, however, provided a combined mean scoring of 3.71.

Both the review of literature (Brovey, 1980; Cheatwood, 1978; Russell, 1991) and findings of this study suggest that photography can be integrated into most all existing curricula.

Finally the area of darkroom safety procedures was indicated as of greater value, both in the literature review and survey findings. The high scores on darkroom safety reflects remarks by Chapman, 1992; Houk and Hart (1987) and Rempel (1991) showing darkroom safety issues as an important consideration.

* Items in individual brackets possess the same mean values.

1. Respondents' concerns about hands-on techniques in photography and the aesthetic values of teaching photography have not changed greatly during the past three decades. This is evident in the comparison of literature and survey results.

2. Respondents are more interested in hands-on approaches to photography rather than historical or future applications.

3. Many of the respondents do not see the advantages of integrating still photography with advanced electronic technology.

4. The safety of students in the classroom is of paramount importance to the respondents. Findings on the survey substantiated teachers' concern about safety in a photographic darkroom.

1. Teachers should provide photographic activities which can be integrated into already existing curriculums.

3. Teachers should be able to devise activities in which current electronic technology can be combined with the artistic qualities of still photography.

4. Teachers, whether teaching photography as a separate course or integrating it into an existing course, should be aware of the need to maintain specific safety techniques in developing and handling of photographic chemicals.

1. The manual should be designed to provide insight into photographic topics (taking a picture, developing, history, art, etc) and how these topics can be integrated into various curriculums or subject areas to enhance learning.

2. The manual should be written to emphasize a practical and hands-on approach to teaching photography rather than emphasizing theory.

3. The manual should provide techniques by which still photography can be integrated into aspects of electronic technology including computers, VCR, etc.

4. The manual should include a section relating specifically to potential dangers in darkroom chemicals and procedures.